Witches throughout history have been a subject of fascination, fear, and persecution. From ancient times to the present day, the concept of a witch has evolved and adapted to various cultural and societal beliefs. In ancient civilizations, witches were often seen as powerful figures with access to supernatural powers. They were believed to have the ability to communicate with spirits, influence the weather, and cast spells. In societies such as ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, witches were respected and even consulted for their knowledge and magical abilities. However, as Christianity spread throughout Europe, the perception of witches changed dramatically.
“Some people would want to merchandise it – sell pointy hats and brooms – and others just said, ‘No. Absolutely not. This is not appropriate. People died. They were real people who were executed as a miscarriage of justice, and we have to be sensitive and respect that,’” she said.
Her confessions about her coven s activities, including their supposed ability to transform into animals, gave great insight into European folklore surrounding witchcraft at that time. After her death, her gravesite was rampant with vandalism, for many visitors believed Laveau s spirit would grant wishes if they drew an X on her gravestone.
However, as Christianity spread throughout Europe, the perception of witches changed dramatically. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, witches were increasingly associated with Satan and believed to engage in malevolent acts. The witch trials of the 16th and 17th centuries, such as the infamous Salem witch trials in colonial Massachusetts, resulted in the persecution and execution of thousands of individuals, primarily women, accused of practicing witchcraft.
Witches through the centuries: What our depictions say about us
Last year, online retailer Amazon was forced to pull a range of hyper-sexualized Halloween costumes for girls as young as age 4 from its online marketplace – an extreme example of the increasing sexualization of Halloween.
A fearsome, hook-nosed, broomstick-riding hag happily still offers respite, but for every scary witch costume, there is an array of sexy enchantress costumes available too.
Far from originating in student Halloween bar crawls, the sexualized witch can be identified as early as 1486 when Heinrich Kramer, a German Catholic clergyman, wrote “Malleus Maleficarum,” a handbook for witch hunters.
The handbook explained that witchcraft is a woman’s crime because woman is “more carnal than man, as is clear from her many carnal abominations . witchcraft came from carnal lust, which is in women insatiable.”
The charges levied against these insatiable women included making men’s genitals disappear or stealing them, keeping them in nests or boxes and feeding them oats and corn. This, wrote Kramer before providing detailed methods to catch the temptresses, was a matter of common report. Far from being written off as the god-fearing, woman-hating crackpot he clearly was, Kramer gained a bit of a following.
An estimated 40,000 to 60,000 people were executed during the witch trials of the early modern period. Of course, they weren’t all women – only around 85 percent. Of course, they weren’t all women – only around 85 percent.
Execution by burning – evoking hellfire and flames of passion – was deemed appropriate punishment for such crimes. In Europe, it was the preferred way to kill a witch because it was more painful. The confessions that led up to it were often elicited through sexually humiliating torture techniques, such as in Italy, where accused women were forced to sit on red- hot stools, preventing them from performing sexual acts with the devil.
“The image of the burning witch is very symbolic, particularly for people at that time who would have believed in hell and eternal flames,” said Catherine Spooner, a professor at Lancaster University in England and an expert on witches. “It’s representing that in a very physical and literal way, and it retains its power now.”
It’s easy to see why modern feminism claimed witches as its martyrs. Matilda Joslyn Gage, a writer involved in the suffrage movement, published a book in 1893 that claimed witches were pagan priestesses worshipping the Great Goddess. In 1973, second-wave feminists Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre English put forward in a pamphlet the idea that the persecuted women were traditional healers and midwives.
“The witch became very important for feminists from the ’60s and ’70s, right up until now,” Spooner said. “It became a story in which a lot of other concerns could be addressed, about marginalization, exclusion and persecution.”
Both publications implied that the witches were a threat to the patriarchal institutions of the church and what passed for orthodox medicine, and they were brought down accordingly. Both also used the inflated claim that there were 9 million victims of the witch trials – an estimate made by German scholar Gottfried Christian Voigt in 1784 – and so have been condemned because of historical inaccuracy.
In conservative England and later in New England during the Salem witch trials of 1692- 93, hanging was preferred to burning.
“The burning witch is not accurate of England at all,” Spooner said. “It was a Protestant country, and that was not considered humane. . Witchcraft is represented differently in different countries, so while (in Europe) it was much more sexualized, representations in Britain were not at all.”
Witches in England and in the United States are characterized by the other type of Halloween costume you’ll find on the shelves – the one with the pointy hat, broomstick and warty hooked nose – the hag.
At the center of the Pendle Witch coven trial of 1612 in Lancashire County, England – perhaps the best-known coven trial in English legal history – were two elderly widows in their 70s: Anne Whittle (aka Chattox) and Elizabeth Southerns (aka Demdike), both blind and appearing to come straight from the pages of a fairy tale.
The representations of the witch as sexy or hag-like are two sides of the same coin, metaphors for the two things society, both then and now, fears most in women – sexual liberation and aging.
“What’s really disturbing about the hag is when she becomes sexual, and when the sexy one loses her youth, she becomes the hag,” Spooner said. “The sexy one can be recuperated by patriarchal culture – why wouldn’t it like a sexy witch? But when the hag becomes sexy, then that becomes threatening.”
Uneducated and poor, Chattox and Demdike were most likely wise-women, common in isolated village life, making small sums as healers, using charms or ointments when doctors were not readily available. It’s safe to assume that if they and their neighbors, believed they had powers for good, they would also believe those powers could be used for hexes and wrongdoing against those who aggrieved them.
Spooner pointed out that these women became obvious scapegoats during a time of religious and political upheaval. In remote areas like Pendle, Catholics continued to practice openly during the English Reformation, and stories from the town soon reached King James I, who had two intense interests – Protestant theology and, after a visit to Denmark where he’d attended a witch trial, witch hunting. His book “Daemonologie” instructed his followers to prosecute any practitioners, and in his native Scotland, witch hunting reached far more brutal extremes.
“Society chooses who it wants to exclude, and it finds reasons to exclude them,” Spooner said. “To shore up their sense of self and consolidate their own identity, societies have to reject certain things – throw them off. So to deal with the social pressures that were fermenting at that time, they had to pick someone, dirty people outside of the community, that they could get rid of to bolster their own strength. It was arbitrary – it could have been anyone – but it was useful that those women were there and already were the object of social tensions.”
One of the arguments against feminist interpretations of the witch trials is that women were often the accusers. But if Chattox and Demdike were both local wise-women, poor and marginalized and in competition, it is logical that they would be ready to accuse one another when the witch hunters began paying attention to Pendle. Their competition ultimately led to each other’s, and to their associates’, demise.
In addition to duplicity among the Lancashire witches, many believe they were coerced into confessions. Starved and sleep deprived when they stood before a court, they ended up saying what they thought they were supposed to say. But although that fits with the picture of the witch as oppressed victim, Spooner believes this isn’t how we should remember them.
“We shouldn’t get rid of the evil witch completely because for many of those women, that is how they thought of themselves. If you take that away from them, then they don’t have anything – that was their way of reclaiming some power in horrible circumstances. You can see from some of the confessions, there’s a real sense of enjoyment in it, like: ‘Right, I’m just going to make up the most extravagant thing I can think of. Yes! I am going to ride off on a black beast!’”
In 2012, Spooner was involved in the 400th anniversary of the Lancashire witch trials. She was surprised to find how lively this history remains in Lancaster, where the executions took place.
“Some people would want to merchandise it – sell pointy hats and brooms – and others just said, ‘No. Absolutely not. This is not appropriate. People died. They were real people who were executed as a miscarriage of justice, and we have to be sensitive and respect that,’” she said.
As for Halloween, Spooner doesn’t necessarily think we need to pay similar respect on that day.
“I think Halloween is slightly different because it’s not linked to a particular event or specific set of historical circumstances. I love Halloween. There’s something celebratory and joyful about it that we shouldn’t ignore. That in itself can be positive and even political,” Spooner said.
“It’s a chance to raise up social fears and deal with them in a way that is comfortable. We can enjoy being scared, but it’s not really scary. It’s innocence. It’s letting off steam, and that forms a really valuable social function.”
The cultural history of witches
17th century: The Wayward Sisters
“Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn, and caldron bubble,” chanted Shakespeare’s three witches in Macbeth. Representing evil, darkness, chaos and conflict, they popularized the image of the cauldron and were a sisterhood to be feared.
19th century: The fairy-tale witch
From Hansel and Gretel’s old, wicked and deformed woman living apart from society in the woods to the narcissistic youth- obsessed queen of Snow White and the wicked stepmother in Cinderella, witches were the baddies of the Grimms’ Fairy Tales and still dominate childhood stories today.
The Pre-Raphaelite muse
Known for depicting female beauty and mystery, the pre- Raphaelites changed discussion of witches by depicting them as priestesses or prophets. Catherine Spooner said: “Sexy witches emerge in painting, classical witches like Medea (by Frederick Sandys) from Greek mythology and presenting them as really powerful attractive women and femme fatales.”
1960s: ‘Bewitched’ and Wicca
The emergence of second-wave feminism coincided with the emergence of Wicca. Drawing on ancient paganism, Wiccans worshipped either the Moon Goddess or the Horned God of Fertility. The most popular depiction of witchcraft at the time was “Bewitched,” about nose-twitching Samantha, who was battling between the dual roles of perfect housewife and witch.
1980s: You may remove your shoes!
Stereotypical depictions of witches began to receive backlash, and Roald Dahl’s witches – who appeared to be normal women but removed their shoes, wigs and faces to reveal hideous disfigurements – came under fire. Catherine Itzin, a feminist activist and author, said it was an example of “how boys learn to become men who hate women.”
1990s: The MTV generation
“In the 1990s, witches just go from strength to strength,” Catherine Spooner said. From the irreverent and empowered “Sabrina the Teenage Witch” to the lesbian Wicca witch, Willow, in “Buffy the Vampire Slayer” via “Charmed,” “Practical Magic,” “The Craft” and countless more, there was a resurgence in the popularity of the witch. “I think that’s partly to do with the rise of Wicca. It was becoming much more well known, much more popular and much more acceptable, and in turn, the programs made it more acceptable.”
The Muggle-born witch
The end of the decade saw the release of the first two “Harry Potter” books, and Hermione Granger cemented witchcraft as a skill, requiring studiousness and endless practice. Witches were now allowed to be like wizards – the more acceptable side of magic. “The idea that you have to undergo initiation, learn rituals and earn your craft changed in popular cultural representations,” Spooner said. “That’s very different from the 17th century, when the witch is this uneducated person.”
A new broom
Witches continue to dominate popular culture. This past year, big screen releases have included “Blair Witch” and “The Witch,” set in New England. There are many welcome examples of stereotype subversion too, like “Witches of the East End.” “American Horror Story: Coven” features a black witch and a witch with Down syndrome.
Tituba languished in prison for a year, as her master would not pay her jail fees. Eventually, in 1693, an unknown individual purchased Tituba from the prison for the price of her jail fees. After this, the woman's path disappeared from history.
The stereotype of the witch as an old, ugly, and evil woman with a pointed hat and broomstick emerged during this period and has persisted in popular culture. Witches became symbols of fear and were often scapegoated for societal troubles and natural disasters. In more recent history, the perception of witches has undergone a shift towards empowerment and reclamation. The feminist movement of the 20th century embraced the figure of the witch as a symbol of female autonomy and liberation. Witches are recognized for their wisdom, intuition, and connection to nature. Contemporary witches practice various forms of witchcraft, including Wicca, a modern pagan religion that draws inspiration from ancient witchcraft practices. These modern witches often emphasize environmentalism, feminist ideals, and the celebration of nature. While the belief in witches and witchcraft may have evolved over time, the fascination with them remains. Witches continue to captivate our imaginations, appearing in literature, films, and popular culture, as both villains and heroines. Whether seen as a source of fear or empowerment, the figure of the witch continues to be a powerful symbol in our collective consciousness..
Reviews for "The Witch of Berkeley: The Strange Case of Elizabeth Southerns"
1. Emily - 1 star - I was really disappointed with "Witches throughout history". The book promised to provide an in-depth look at witches throughout different time periods, but instead it just skimmed over the surface. The information provided was basic and easily found with a quick internet search. I was hoping for a more detailed analysis and exploration of the historical context and societal perceptions of witches, but this book fell short.
2. James - 2 stars - I found "Witches throughout history" to be quite dull and uninspiring. The writing lacked any kind of engaging narrative or storytelling, and it felt more like a dry textbook than an enjoyable read. The content was also repetitive, with similar information being repeated in different chapters. Overall, I was expecting a more captivating and informative exploration of witches throughout history, but unfortunately, this book didn't deliver.
3. Sarah - 2.5 stars - While "Witches throughout history" did provide some interesting tidbits about witches in different time periods, I found the writing style to be quite convoluted and confusing. The author frequently jumped from one topic to another without proper transitions, making it difficult to follow the flow of the book. Additionally, I was hoping for more in-depth analysis of the cultural and social implications of witchcraft, but the book only scratched the surface. Overall, I think there are better books out there on the subject that provide a more engaging and coherent exploration of witches throughout history.
4. Michael - 1.5 stars - I was excited to dive into "Witches throughout history" but was quickly disappointed. The book lacked proper citations and references, making it difficult to trust the accuracy of the information presented. Additionally, the author's writing style was quite biased, often painting witches in a negative light without providing a balanced perspective of their historical significance. I also found the book to be poorly edited, with numerous grammatical errors and typos throughout. Overall, I would not recommend this book to anyone looking for a reliable and unbiased exploration of witches throughout history.
5. Grace - 2 stars - As someone who has always been fascinated by witches and their history, I was eager to read "Witches throughout history". However, I was let down by the lack of depth and analysis in this book. It felt like the author was just reciting a series of facts without delving into the cultural and social significance of witches in different time periods. The information provided was basic and didn't offer anything new or thought-provoking. Overall, I was hoping for a more comprehensive and insightful look at witches throughout history, but this book fell short of my expectations.