Wicca, a modern pagan religious movement, was founded by Gerald Gardner in the mid-20th century. Gardner, an English civil servant and amateur anthropologist, claimed to have been initiated into a coven of witches in the New Forest region of England in the 1930s. He later popularized and expanded upon the practices and beliefs he learned from this coven, and is considered the father of modern Wicca. Gardner published several books on the subject, including "Witchcraft Today" in 1954 and "The Meaning of Witchcraft" in 1959, which brought Wicca to the attention of a wider audience. His teachings and rituals emphasized reverence for nature, the worship of a goddess and god, and the practice of magic. Gardner's work laid the foundation for the diverse and decentralized tradition of Wicca that exists today.

Gerald Gardner and the Origins of Wicca: Emerging Worldviews 21

The most common and best-known form of Neo-Paganism today is Wicca. Not surprisingly, given its eclectic character, Wicca is a non-dogmatic religion with a wide variety of forms. Although it has in the past and occasionally still claims to be an ancient religion — some even claim it to be the religion of the Stone Age — Wicca actually originated in the 20th century in the work of English esoteric thinker Gerald Gardner (1884-1964). A brief summary of his life and the influences on his thinking will demonstrate why his approach to Paganism is best described as eclectic. Gardner’s Background From an early age, Gardner showed an interest in esoterica. He came from an upper middle-class family involved in the hardwood timber business. An asthmatic, Gardner left England as a boy for warmer climates. He spent time in Nice, the Canary Islands, and Ghana before spending nine years in the Madeira Islands where he developed an intellectual interest in Spiritualism. Young Gerald was a voracious reader, but he never attended school and thus had problems writing for the rest of his life. As a young man, he traveled to South Asia, working on tea and rubber plantations in Ceylon, Borneo, and Malaya as well as in the British civil service. Between his time in Asia and return trips to England, he got involved with the Freemasons (twice, resigning both times) and took up anthropology, studying the magical and spiritual practices of the indigenous people of South Asia and Indonesia. While in Malaya, he formally converted to Islam as a convenience but does not seem to have ever practiced the religion. On visits to England, he also returned to his interest in Spiritualism. He was quite skeptical of much of what he found, though he encountered a few mediums who he believed to be genuine. Sometime during this period, Gardner also encountered theories surrounding a primordial Mother Goddess as well as religions in Palestine that featured both male and female deities; he also became familiar with Margaret Murray, an Egyptologist who posited that the victims of early modern witch hunts were adherents of a pre-Christian pagan religion that worshipped a Horned God that Christians identified as Satan. Although occultists embraced Murray’s ideas, few folklore specialists other than Gardner did. Despite this, Murray was asked to write the entry on “witches” for the Encyclopaedia Britannica and so her ideas became embedded in popular culture.

In his initiation ritual, he was excited to hear the word wica, the Old English word for “witch,” and became convinced that he had found a surviving example of the witch cults described by Margaret Murray.

Finding Witches While in England, Gardner dabbled in Rosicrucianism, a Western esoteric tradition, though he soon left after concluding that some of their beliefs were ridiculous. Nonetheless, some members on the margins of the Rosicrucians befriended him and introduced him to the New Forest Coven in 1939. In his initiation ritual, he was excited to hear the word wica, the Old English word for “witch,” and became convinced that he had found a surviving example of the witch cults described by Margaret Murray. Later scholars who have studied the New Forest Coven have concluded that the connection to Margaret Murray was much closer than Gardner had thought: The Coven probably originated in the mid-1930s, just a few years before Gardner encountered it, and was built around folk magic traditions and Murray’s theories. Gardner was also interested in nudism, and so purchased a nudist park in Bricket Woods which would become a center for his work. He acquired a 16th century “witch cottage” and moved it to his property, dedicating it with a ceremony drawn from the Key of Solomon, a Renaissance era book of magic. He also became involved with Druidry, esoteric Christianity, and the Society for Psychical Research; on a trip to America, he attempted to learn about Voodoo as well. In 1947, Gardner met Aleister Crowley, the ceremonial magician who described himself as “the Beast 666.” Crowley initiated Gardner into the Ordo Templi Orientis and decreed that he could initiate people into the order. Crowley would have continuing influence on Gardner’s thought.

Although Gardner claimed and probably believed that what he was doing was in continuity with the witch cults described by Margaret Murray (and now thoroughly debunked), his religion was a modern creation put together from a wide range of sources.

Promoting Wicca Even while dabbling in Druidry and these other esoteric and occult movements, Gardner’s interest increasingly turned to promoting Wicca. He wrote a novel with the help of astrologer Madeleine Montalban entitled “High Magic’s Aid” (1949) which described ceremonial magic based on the Key of Solomon among twelfth century Wiccans. He also began writing Wiccan rituals that would eventually form the core of his “Book of Shadows,” which he would complete with the help of Doreen Valiente, whom he appointed High Priestess of the Bricket Woods Coven. In 1951, Gardner moved to the Isle of Man, where the Folk-lore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft had opened. Gardner was the resident witch at the center, which he purchased in 1954 and renamed the Museum of Witchcraft and Magic. That same year he published a nonfiction book, “Witchcraft Today,” and courted publicity, whether positive and negative, in an effort to attract more people to his religion. Gardner’s health was never good, and so over winters he would travel south to help his asthma. His wife died in 1960, and his health deteriorated further. While traveling home after wintering in Lebanon, Gardner died of a heart attack on the ship. He was buried at the next port, Tunis. His funeral was only attended by the ship’s chaplain. Gardner’s story is a good illustration of the interweaving of various esoteric traditions in the creation of Wicca and other eclectic forms of Neo-Paganism. Although Gardner claimed and probably believed that what he was doing was in continuity with the witch cults described by Margaret Murray (and now thoroughly debunked), his religion was a modern creation put together from a wide range of sources. Not surprisingly, it did not stay united. We turn now to Wiccan beliefs and practices and the various traditions within it.

Gerald Gardner: Legacy of the 'father of witchcraft'

Southridge, a comfortable 1920s house in Highcliffe, was bought by Gardner and his wife, Dorothea, in 1938 when they moved from London.

Until then Gardner's life had been unremarkable for someone of his wealthy background in the colonial era.

Born in 1884, he had been sent to the warmer climes of Madeira as a child in a bid to alleviate his asthma. Consequently he received little education and later claimed he had taught himself to read.

As a young man, he spent time working in Ceylon, Borneo and Malaya before returning to London in 1936.

After arriving in Highcliffe, shortly before the outbreak of war, he became acquainted with a group claiming to be witches and was initiated into the New Forest Coven at nearby Mill House.

It proved to be a turning point for Gardner who, from that time, devoted himself to promoting his new-found religion.

Biographer and Wiccan initiate Philip Heselton said: "He wasn't a religious pioneer. What he did was to publicise it and write about it and he gradually became known through that and people made contact.

"He initiated quite a lot of people into the Wiccan culture. He felt it was important that it survived."

Gardner said he was initiated into the New Forest Coven in Mill House, not far from his home in Highcliffe

Gerald Gardner's book of shadows - containing his rituals - was given to High Priestess Doreen Valiente

After the war Gardner returned with his wife to London where he wrote a number of books, the best known being Witchcraft Today. Published in 1954, it offered readers an insight into the history and practices of the witch-cult and offered the press a feeding frenzy.

Mr Heselton added: "There were headlines about lurid rites and evil black magic but, in actual fact, quite a lot of people saw through it. He got lots of letters as a result of that, which helped him enormously."

Gardner's work laid the foundation for the diverse and decentralized tradition of Wicca that exists today..

Unreliable witch?

Gardner's theories were drawn from numerous sources, including Freemasonry, magical orders such as the Golden Dawn and fellow occultists, including Aleister Crowley.

He also formulated the Wicca calendar of eight festivals, bringing together existing festivals from different traditions.

By the time of his death in 1964, Gardnerian Wicca, as it became known, had spread to the United States and beyond. Estimates of the number of Wiccans worldwide range from 100,000 to 800,000.

But while Gardner's legacy is virtually undisputed, details of his life continue to be scrutinised.

Historian Prof Ronald Hutton said: "He was a man of extraordinary charm and mischief, generous and with warmth of heart, but something of a trickster.

"Most of those who knew him found him fun but slightly unreliable when it came to witchcraft."

He said Gardner often stretched the truth and encouraged coven members to claim they were from an ancient lineage of witches.

"I think he encouraged people to tell the press things about themselves that weren't true," he said.

The plaque is being unveiled on Friday, the 130th anniversary of Gardner's birth in 1884.

Gerald Gardener: The Founder of Wicca

Gerald Gardner, the founder of Wicca, retired in 1936 with his wife to England and settled in the London area. He joined a nudist club and lived a relatively calm and uneventful life. Being retired allowed him to get away from the bitter cold of England, which aggravated his asthma. After an immensely spiritual trip to the warm, Mediterranean island of Cyprus, Gardner felt positive that he had lived there in a past life, claiming that he had seen the island in his dreams. This led to a fascination with all things occult and mystical. In 1938, he moved from the London area to New Forest, a quaint place in southern England. When he realized that New Forest had deep roots in witchcraft, Gardner began researching its history and the groups who practiced there. He spent the rest of his life learning about witchcraft and the occult, and he subsequently developed his own belief system. This belief system was dubbed Wicca or “cult of the wise people” by Gardner in 1954. 1 His belief system of Wicca has since spread across the globe and despite the circumstances surrounding its origins, Wicca has evolved into a “legitimate religious movement in its own right” according to authors Russel and Magliocco. 2 So, how, exactly, did Gerald Gardner create Wicca?

Gardner was born June 13, 1884, in Great Crosby, Lancashire, England to busy and relatively inattentive parents. He was raised almost solely by his nursemaid and felt little connection to his parents. When Gardner was sixteen, his nursemaid got married and moved to Sri Lanka. Gardner went with her. At sixteen, when he got to Sri Lanka, he began working on a rubber plantation as a planter. He worked there for nineteen years before moving to Borneo. Once in Borneo, he worked as a rubber tree plantation inspector, a customs official, and an inspector of opium for the next thirteen years. Gardner had an interest in history and other cultures his entire life, but after moving away from London, he began to study the culture, histories, and practices of the people around him in his spare time. His research ability, and focused knowledge of many of the spiritual and religious beliefs of that area, would come in handy once he retired and started to learn about witchcraft. Eventually, this knowledge would become a part of Wicca as a whole, because Gardner would use it in his own practice. 3

A Wiccan altar, with protection symbol | Courtesy of Wikimedia commons

After moving to New Forest, England in 1938, Gardner joined the Fellowship of Crotona, which was led by “Old Dorothy” a “very prim and seemingly conservative lady” who was born in India. 4 The members of the Fellowship of Crotona claimed to be hereditary witches, whose knowledge had been passed down for hundreds of years. Modern research shows that these claims were false and that the group had existed for only twenty years prior to Gardner joining them. Gardner stayed with the Fellowship of Crotona for a little while, learning their beliefs and practices, helping them put on plays about the occult at their theater, and meeting many people. One of the people he met at the Fellowship of Crotona swore that they recognized him from the island of Cyprus and that they must have known each other in their past lives. Feeling that he had learned everything he could from the Fellowship of Crotona Gardner decided it was time to look for inspiration elsewhere. 5

After moving on from the Fellowship of Crotona, Gardner continued to study witchcraft. He published the novel High Magics Aid in 1949. This novel was a work of fiction, a fantasy story with action and fighting. However, Gardner used all of his knowledge about actual witchcraft for the magic in his story. This allowed people to have insight into witchcraft at a time when witchcraft was illegal. Had Gardner attempted to publish a nonfiction book about his study of witchcraft, he would have put himself in danger; so High Magics Aid came into being. 6

Gardner met Aleister Crowley sometime after he left the Fellowship of Crotona, just before Crowley’s death in December of 1947. Aleister Crowley was an infamous name in both Europe and the United States due to his heavy involvement in the occult. He was known as “the wickedest man in the world.” 7 Crowley introduced Gardner to the Ordo Templi Orientis, which practiced Tantrism, an East Asian form of magic. According to the World Religions Reference Library, “Tantrism is a spiritual movement, which involves mantras (verbal formulas), symbolic body postures and hand motions, and sexual rituals”; when Gardner learned about this spiritual movement from Crowley he decided to open his own chapter. 8 Gardner opened his chapter of the Ordo Templi Orientis at his London home, which resided on the grounds of a nudist club he belonged to. His chapter was almost all men, and often the number of women in the group was so low that the group had to hire prostitutes in order to carry out the Great Rite, which was a ritual where the high priestess had to have sexual intercourse with all the male members of the chapter. 9 It’s unclear what happened to Gardner’s chapter of the Ordo Templi Orientis, but eventually, he moved on.

In 1951, laws against witchcraft were eliminated in England, allowing Gardner to practice witchcraft openly and publish his books on witchcraft as non-fiction. He moved to the Isle of Man and bought the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft from an acquaintance. He established this as the base of his first coven, which would practice Gardner’s form of witchcraft for the first time. This practice would spread across the globe, and eventually become modern Wicca. In 1953, Gardner invited Doreen Valiente, who eventually became the high priestess, into his coven. Together they worked on Gardner’s Book of Shadows, collecting and writing down all of Gardner’s teachings. 10 A “Book of Shadows” is a journal or notebook that contains all the information someone practicing witchcraft has learned in order to ensure nothing is forgotten or lost. These books can be passed down in a coven, ensuring that the teachings of the coven stay in the coven. 11

Gerald Gardners Book of Shadows which he worked on with Doreen Valiente. Provided by Wikimedia commons.

In 1954, Gardner published Witchcraft Today, a nonfiction book about Gardner’s thoughts on modern witchcraft. Gardner believed that the end of witchcraft was coming, stating: “I think we must say good-bye to the witch. The cult is doomed, I am afraid, partly because of modern conditions, housing shortage, the smallness of families, and chiefly by education. The modern child is not interested. He knows witches are all bunk.” 12 However, the publication of this book actually brought a resurgence of witchcraft in England. He became known as “Britain’s chief witch” after the publication of his book. 13

A collection of Wiccan symbols. Provided by Wikimedia Commons.

Gerald Gardner passed away of a heart attack on a return trip from Lebanon on February 12, 1964. His papers were released to the public after his death, and they revealed that Gardner essentially made up his personal practice. It was an amalgamation of what he learned from the many covens and spiritual groups he joined, as well as what he learned while living in the Middle East and on archeological trips. Gardner has been given the credit for bringing witchcraft to the United States, even though he never actually went there. He initiated Raymond Buckley into his practice in 1963. While Buckley was born in London, he went to the United States and spread Gardner’s teachings across the country. This developed into the Wiccan movement and it had more than fifty thousand practitioners by the early twenty-first century. 14

Witchcraft is still practiced around the world in many different forms, including Wicca. Wicca has developed and changed immensely since Gardner created it, with traditions being added or taken away as people continue to research and learn more about the history of witchcraft. People still practice to this day, and it seems the numbers are only growing. Despite the fact that Gardner’s personal practice was mostly uncredited cultural appropriation, his work brought about a resurgence of interest in old witchcraft and allowed for the practice to be somewhat normalized. 15

1. Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 2001, s.v. Witchcraft.” ↵
2. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2005, s.v. “Witchcraft: Concepts of Witchcraft,” by Jeffrey Burton Russell and Sabina Magliocco. ↵
3. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
4. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2010, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald.” ↵
5. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
6. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
7. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2005, s.v. Crowley, Aleister. ↵
8. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
9. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
10. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2010, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald.” ↵
11. Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 2001, s.v. “Book of Shadows.” ↵
12. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
13. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
14. World Religions Reference Library, 2007, s.v. “Gardner, Gerald Brousseau.” ↵
15. Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 2001, s.v. Witchcraft.” ↵

Who founded wicca

Name: Wicca, Wicce, the Craft or Neo-Paganism

Wicca means "to bend or alter" from the Old English

Founder: Gerald B. Gardner is considered the first founding father of all modern incarnations of Wicca. Some of his
students later went on to found other Wiccan traditions, from which arose more branches, continuing the process of
self-perpetuation.

Date of Birth: Gardner was born on June 13, 1884 and died February 13, 1964.

Birth Place: Lancashire, England.

Year Founded: 1951.

History: Gardner was a retired British civil servant who claimed to have been initiated into the New Forest Coven by
Dorothy Clutterbuck in 1939. The New Forest Coven claimed to be a traditional Wiccan coven where rituals and
practices had been passed down since pre-Christian times. In 1951, laws prohibiting the practice of witchcraft in
England were repealed and soon thereafter in 1954, Gardner published his book, Witchcraft Today. His work was
based on the thesis by the anthropologist, Margaret Murray, that witchcraft has existed since pre-Christian times but
was hidden because of persecution.

More recently, the actual legitimacy of Gardner's claims has been refuted with the existence of claims that Gardner was
never initiated by a Dorothy Clutterbuck and that the rituals and practices outlined in his book are simply a synthesis of
several sources, including Murray's work, the writings of Aleister Crowley and Freemasonry. Critics and experts have since drawn the conclusion that Gardner probably was involved in a form of Wicca, as in the Old Religion of earth magic and herbal practices, but in time created a more ritualized and romanticized Wiccan form. The Wiccan tradition he created eventually became known as Gardnerian Wicca.

Although Gardner's claims in Witchcraft Today that Wicca has existed since pre-Christian times have since been
refuted, this is not to say that Wicca did not exist during the pre-Christian era. It is simply that the Old Religion of
Wicca focused more on herbal medicine and magical lore. Regardless of its relatively benign practice, as Christianity began to spread across Europe, so did its influence especially when the Kings converted to Christianity. Further into the countryside, the common people tended to practice both the Old Religion and Christianity but as the Church became more and more hierarchical and patriarchical, the drive to cease all Pagan practices substantially increased. With the increasing persecution, the Inquisition and witch-hunts, it is understandble why practitioners of the Old Religion eventually went underground and remained anonymous until the coming of Gerald Gardner.

One of Gardner's students, Alexander Sanders later revised Gardnerian rituals and practices into another Wiccan
tradition, called Alexandrian for the ancient city of Alexandria. Even though by all observations, Alexandrian Wicca
directly evolved from Gardnerian Wicca, Sanders claimed to have been initiated as a child by his grandmother, Sybil
Leek. As the self-proclaimed "King of the Witches," Sanders appeared as a guest on several television shows and just
like Gardner, worked towards publicizing Wicca, which drew criticisms from the older, more traditional constituents of
the Craft.

Eventually these two main Wiccan traditions migrated from Britain to the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. As to be expected, several new branches emerged during this time due to the influx of ideas. Eventually in 1972, an Alexandrian High Priestess, Mary Nesnick, created a tradition called Algard Wicca which bases its foundation upon the similarities between Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca. Another form of Wicca, Dianic, also began to emerge in the United States in 1971. Unlike other traditions, Dianic focuses on the worship of Diana, the ancient greek Goddess and consequently, a higher percentage of women and feminist beliefs are found in Dianic covens. The Dianic tradition formed in two separate locations; first in Venice, California by Zsuzsanne Emese Bedapest and in Dallas, Texas by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts. More currently, however, a larger proportion of members in Wicca are known as eclectic practitioners. That is, they are not a part of any specific Wiccan craft and often not part of a coven. Instead, these practitioners draw upon several sources to form their own
individualized and innovative religious practices.

Sacred Texts: There is no sacred text encompassing all of Wicca, in all its many and eclectic incarnations. However
each Coven has a Book of Shadows, which contains rituals, invocations and charms. They contain things that have
been learned from experience and from each other. Witches often copy from each others' books that which appeals to
them so functionally, no two are ever exactly like. Ideally a Book of Shadows should contain only methods that have
proven successful and consistent whereas failed ideas are excluded. Along with the Book of Shadows, other essential
texts are two grimoires: The Greater Key of Solomon the King which dates from medieval times and The Book of
the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin the Mage which was published in the late 1900s.

Contractual/ Covenantal: Convenantal

Size of Group: Because of its lack of hierarchical structure and methods for initiating members, the actual number of
practicing members of the many Wiccan traditions has been difficult to ascertain. Also several of its constituents have
been hesitant to reveal their religious affiliation due to a fear of public persecution and prejudice. A recent estimate is
that there exist somewhere between 300-30,000 covens in the United States today. This tremendous range in estimated size effectively says that no one knows.

Notes: Modern Wicca has its foundation in pre-Christian religions, a distinct worship of nature and Arctic
shamanism. Because none of its traditions and rituals are branches of any existing and established religious group and
since its belief system is highly innovative, Wicca qualifies as a cult because it remains in constant conflict and high
tension with its surrounding society. In fact, it is a conflict that has existed for almost all the Christian Era. And as is
evident from the brief history, its contemporary expressions seem highly prone to sectarian splinter.

II. Beliefs of the Group

Wiccan practitioners believe in a balanced polarities, especially that of the feminine and masculine. These two aspects
of nature are embodied in two dieties, known as the Goddess and God. Traditionally most Pagan gods such as Diana,
Hecate, Pan and Zeus are considered to represent the different aspects of the Goddess and God. Most traditions
worship the two dieties as equals where none deserves more importance than the other. This usually translates into a
balance between the feminine and masculine forces in a coven, although men tend to be a minority in the Wiccan
religion. However a few branches, such as Dianic, give more importance to the feminine
aspect.

According to Wiccan tradition, the Goddess is the immanent existing force and the origin of all creation as in the Earth,
nature and life itself. Evidence of Goddess worship since the pre-Christian era exists in the form of small statues and
carvings of voluptous female figures that have been found throughout Europe. The Goddess has three faces: the Maiden, the Mother and the Crone. These faces correspond to the many different cycles in nature: the waxing, full and waning phases of the moon; the menstrual cycle and the cycle of life in birth, life and death. The God aspect is better known as the Horned God from the ancient Celtic god, Cernunnos ("The Horned"). Evidence of a belief in the Horned God dates back to cave paintings from the Paleolithic times in Europe. Other representations of the Horned God later appeared in Egypt, Mesopotamia and India. The Horned God is worshiped as the masculine side of nature as well as the opener of the gates of life and death. The Horned God
represents the fertility that allows the Goddess to create life so in essence, all life originates from Him. He also known
as the Hunter so eventually, He is a bringer of death. According the Wiccan belief, the Horned God represents a masculine force that is wild, strong and expressive without being violent, patriarchical and destructive. Essentially, the Horned God is the perfect opposing force and complement to the Triple Goddess.

Due to its innovative nature, Wicca does not have a written set of rules for its members to follow. However three main
beliefs guide practitioners through their actions and beliefs. The first law is known as the Wiccan Rede which states:
"An ye harm none, do what ye will." The basic meaning is that members are allowed to follow whatever path they
choose so long as no harm befalls others, including themselves. The Wiccan rede also serves as an ethical guideline for
magical practices in everyday life and ritual.

The second law that Wiccans follow is the Threefold Law, which simply states that a person's deeds return to him/her
three times over. The Threefold Law has large implications in governing one's behavior because due to its meaning, the
repercussions of both good and evil behavior return to their originator three times over.

The final belief is that of reincarnation. Wiccans do not believe in heaven or hell since death is considered to be another
form of existence. Some Wiccans believe that a soul is continually reborn whereas others believe that once a soul
learns all the life lessons, it is granted eternal rest in a place called the Summerlands. Reincarnation is the ultimate
method for curbing the misuse of magic and evil behavior since it deals out a type of cosmic justice in that person is
reborn in a position that befits their deeds from the previous life.

Although Wiccan practices vary greatly from tradition to tradition and coven to coven, most practitioners follow a basic
system of ritual and celebration. Covens range in number of members, but traditionally have a maximum of thirteen. When the number of members in a coven exceeds thirteen, the common belief is that the coven should split, to continue the self-perpetuation process. Wiccans do not have any holy buildings for their rituals. Due to their beliefs, any place in contact with the Earth will suffice. Instead Wiccans worship what is known as the Circle. The area is purified by the four elements and then the Circle is cast, usually by someone walking clockwise along its perimeter and drawing an actual circle, sometimes with a wand or athame which are two common Wiccan tools. After this, the four cardinal directions are greeted and invoked, according to the tradition and preference of the practitioners.

Wiccans conduct their magical and sacred rites within the Circle, invoking the names of the Goddess and God and the
powers of nature. Once the Circle has been cast, the space within represents an altered consciousness that is "between
worlds." The Circle also serves to contain energy that is built up during the magical rites until it is ready to be released
in what is known as the Cone of Power. When the Cone of Power is released, the energy goes into the purposes that
the Wiccan practitioners desired for it during their rites. Also common during Wiccan rituals, a cup of wine is raised and an athame is dipped into it. The cup is then passed around the Circle to be drunk by the practitioners with the words, "Blessed Be." Cakes are then passed around as well, to complete the socialising and fellowship that is present in covens. Sometimes rituals are also conducted skyclad (naked) or in special costumes, depending on the Wiccan tradition. The purpose of either is to increase the unity with nature and magical potential. At the end of the rites, the Circle is opened, usually the counterclockwise direction.

Wiccans have a set of tools commonly used for casting circles and during rituals. The broom, a stereotypical Wiccan symbol, actually serves the purpose of purifying a space before casting a circle. An altar is also commonly set up in the center of the circle where the members cast magic. The main tools utilized by members are the wand, cup, pentacle and athame, which is a type of black-handled dagger. These objects represent fire, water, earth and air, respectively. In some traditions, the wand is symbol for air and the athame a symbol for fire. With the altar and practitioner, if solitary, or High Priestess, in a coven, located in the center of the circle, the fifth element of spirit is present during the spellcasting. This totality of the elements and nature perfectly complement the image of the Goddess and God during the ritual.

The most well-known ritual is that of "Drawing Down the Moon," in which the spirit of the Goddess and God are drawn down into the High Priestess and High Priest, respectively. The ritual usually occurs during a full moon and consists of an invokation and the High Priestess holding up the cup, full of water, while the High Priest raises the athame. After "Drawing Down the Moon," the High Priestess and High Priest are the dieties incarnate. In the succeeding time, they convey knowledge and information to the other members of the coven. Sometimes they answer questions about personal issues and give insight and understanding about the spiritual realms.

There are three types of Wiccan gatherings: Sabbats, Esbats and special purpose. In a special purpose gathering, a coven meets to deal with a common goal or issue that needs immediate attention, such as casting a health spell to aid a sickly friend. Most magical rites are performed at Esbats, which are small gatherings that correspond to the phases of the moon. Covens usually celebrate the Esbats alone, a practice which helps to reaffirm the bonds within a coven. Larger and more tribal festivals also take place during the year. These holidays, known as Sabbats, celebrate four major agricultural and pastoral festivals (Samhain, Imbolc, Beltaine and Lammas) and four minor solar festivals of the solstices (Winter and Summer) and equinoxes (Vernal and Autumnal). During these gatherings, several covens often meet together to share and enjoy the festivities.

III. Issues and Controversies: Past and Present

Wicca, in all its incarnations, is probably one of the longest and most persecuted religions in history. With the coming of
Christianity in Europe, the Old Religion was almost immediately opposed. Although the rulers easily converted, the common folk were less accessible. Eventually during the 15th century, what became known as "The Burning Times" came to pass. As the Church spread lies about the Wiccan tradition and accused female practitioners of being handmaidens of Satan, Wiccans were increasingly persecuted as the hysteria increased. With the aid of witch-hunting manuals such as the Malleus Maleficarum, thousands of accused witches across Europe, a large portion of which were not even practitioners of the Old Religion, were hunted down and killed well into the 18th century in Europe. Even today, the actual number of people who died during that time is unknown.

While the "Burning Times" were moving towards their end in Europe, in 17th century Salem, another witch-hunt was beginning. As with the European witch-hysteria, Salem fostered an environment ready for such a hysteria, strained as its inhabitants were between economics, lifestyles and politics as a result of their new surroundings and Puritan values and beliefs. With the addition of an interest in the occult and some knowledge in voodoo lore from a slave, the stage was set for another general panic and witch-hunt to begin. In 1692, a group of closely-knit girls ranging in age from nine to nineteen started to meet together to discuss the future. Because of a slight fascination with magic, one of the girls eventually created a crude crystal ball and from there, the path to the Witch Trials began. As time went on, the girls' parents began to show concern about their children's "odd" behavior and most likely were the original instigators of the belief in the presence of witchcraft.

Only under persistent questioning did the girls finally begin to accuse other people in Salem of the practice of witchcraft. At this time, members of the clergy were struggling to reassert authority and create religious fervor. The accusations served as an opportunity to do exactly that. With the aid of Cotton Mather's The Wonders of the Invisible World, the witch-craze was justified and even further driven into a panic. Before the Witch trials ended, several people had been hanged and many more had been tortured or spent months in prison.

Today, Old Salem has been into a Maritime National Site for its esteemed status as a major center for the Eastern luxuries trade and its legacy of ships leaving its ports to open new trading markets overseas. Shortly after the Witch trials ended, New England trade increased and much later after the Revolutionary War, the sea port substiantially flourished. Even though most of the museums and historic landmarks are devoted to Old Salem's maritime heritage, the Visitor Center and a private museum present interesting ways to learn about the Salem Witch trials.

Almost unbelievably the witch-hunts have persisted to the present day. As recent as 1986-1996 in South Africa, thousands of people have been accused of witchcraft, although the term does not apply to a religion and practice similar to that of Wicca. The victims have been accused of powers that are remarkably similar to the accused powers of witches in Medieval Europe. Despite all beliefs to the contrary and regardless of an actual involvement in Wicca or the occult, witch-hunts have continued to occur across time and culture.

One of the more common and present day controversies of Wicca, one that has its links to the European witch-hunt, is
that of its supposed link to Satanism. One of the unlying reasons for this is the marked similarity between the visual representations of the Horned God and Satan. More than one theorist has suggested that one of the ways the Church aided in the persecution of Wicca and its predecessors was taking the Horned God and making Him into the Christian incarnation of evil. Such a legacy probably helps to further the present-day prejudice against Wiccans. There have been allegations of members losing custody of their children and facing discrimination because of their religious beliefs. Despite all the misinformation concerning Wicca in popular culture, it should be obvious that none of it applies to true adherents of the Wiccan craft. Ideas such as human sacrifice and child molestation are in direct opposition to the Wiccan Rede. Unfortunately this ignorance and misinformation is a direct result of the tendency for Wiccan practitioners to remain anonymous and unnamed. Even with such public awareness groups as the Witches' League for Public Awareness and The Witches' Web, the stigma that has been associated with the word "witch" is likely to remain for a long time.

Another issue connected to Wicca is that of the feminist movement. Traditional Wiccan adherents and feminist proponents have had an uneasy relationship since Wicca was first introduced in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. For the traditional Wiccan, the Goddess was a symbol of nature but for the feminist, the Goddess was the symbol of the empowerment of women. Feminist practitioners such as Zsuzsanne Bedapest and her branch of Dianic Wicca have emphasized the feminine aspect much more than traditional Wicca, to the extent that men are excluded from their covens (Neitz, 367). This does not sit well with traditional Wiccans who stress the balance of masculinity and femininity. Such obvious disregard for one polarity, in Wiccan belief, would throw the magical forces askew. Perhaps another attractive aspect of Wicca is the opportunity for feminists to identify with the persecuted of Europe's Witch-hunt who were victims of the strongly patriarchical structure of Christianity. Since its connection to Wicca, the feminist movement has then focused its purpose on stripping away all the dark connotations of the word "witch" and restore to it instead the old attachments of healing and female power.

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Reviews for "The Origins of Wicca: Shining a Light on its Mysterious Founder"

1. John - 2 stars - As someone who has studied the history of paganism and witchcraft for many years, I found "Who founded Wicca" to be extremely misleading. The book claims to reveal the true origins of Wicca, but instead, it presents biased and unsubstantiated theories as absolute fact. The author cherry-picks evidence and conveniently ignores contradictory information, making it difficult to take their claims seriously. Overall, I was disappointed with the lack of scholarly rigor and critical analysis in this book.

2. Mary - 1 star - "Who founded Wicca" was a complete letdown for me. The author's arguments lacked evidence and were purely speculation. It read more like a conspiracy theory than a well-researched book on the subject. I was hoping to learn about the true origins of Wicca, but instead, I was presented with wild theories unsupported by credible sources. If you're looking for a more accurate and reliable exploration of Wiccan history, I would suggest looking elsewhere.

3. David - 2 stars - I had high hopes for "Who founded Wicca," but unfortunately, it fell short of my expectations. The author presents some intriguing theories, but these theories are often presented as undisputed facts without sufficient evidence or supporting research. Additionally, the writing style is quite convoluted and hard to follow, making it challenging to grasp the author's main points. Overall, I found this book to be lacking in credibility and would not recommend it to those seeking a thorough examination of Wicca's origins.

4. Sarah - 1 star - "Who founded Wicca" was a frustrating read from start to finish. The author's arguments were weak and poorly supported, and they seemed more interested in pushing their own agenda than presenting an objective analysis. The lack of reliable sources and the absence of critical thinking raised significant doubts about the book's veracity. I would caution anyone interested in learning about Wicca's origins to approach this book with skepticism and seek out more reputable sources instead.

Who Founded Wicca: Separating Fact from Fiction