The pagan world refers to the civilizations and cultures that practiced ancient religions before the advent of Christianity. These religions were varied and diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs, rituals, and gods. One of the most well-known pagan religions is Norse mythology, practiced by the Vikings in northern Europe. They worshipped a pantheon of gods led by Odin, Thor, and Loki, among others. These gods were believed to control natural phenomena, like the weather, and were seen as protectors and patrons of various aspects of life. Another prominent pagan religion was the Greco-Roman pantheon, worshipped by the ancient Greeks and Romans.
Hans-Friedrich Mueller, Hans-Friedrich Mueller|ACTOR, The Great Courses|DIRECTOR, and The Great Courses|PRODUCER. Pagan World: Ancient Religions Before Christianity: Early Pagan Religion in Mesopotamia The Great Courses, 2020.
Grouped Work ID 53f2ea1c-cff7-2364-ad10-ece1298df75f-eng Full title pagan world ancient religions before christianity early pagan religion in mesopotamia Author mueller hans friedrich Grouping Category movie Last Update 2023-10-10 10 07 57AM Last Indexed 2023-10-18 03 32 43AM. While writ-ten or even more broadly discursive theology seems to have been rather limited and isolated, nevertheless, in ritual, the image and imagination of the gods was as rich, complex, and paradoxical as anywhere and, what is more, seemingly articulated theological categories which anticipated some of the standard concerns of Christian discursive theology.
Another prominent pagan religion was the Greco-Roman pantheon, worshipped by the ancient Greeks and Romans. This pantheon included gods and goddesses such as Zeus, Hera, Apollo, and Aphrodite. The ancient Greeks and Romans believed in the intervention of gods in human affairs and performed rituals and sacrifices to appease them.
Ancient Roots, Historical Challenges
Although ancient Pagan religious practices, including deity worship and seasonal rituals, have been syncretized for millennia with Christian and other religious traditions, witchcraft was outlawed and persecuted in early modern Europe and America. A series of accusations of witchcraft and investigations involving torture led to the killing of thousands, if not millions.
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Over the course of human history, deities associated with human, animal, and plant fertility have been worshipped around the world. Some scholars and many Pagans believe that the “root religion” of humanity—the religion from which all other religions eventually evolved—must have been based around fertility and natural cycles, knowledge of which was necessary for survival. The small figurine known as the Venus of Willendorf, named for the area of Austria in which she was found, dates as early as 30,000 BCE. Pagans often see its ample female body as representing a goddess of plenty, and replicas of the figurine can be found on many Pagan altars.
Early agricultural societies arose during the Neolithic era, beginning around 10,000 BCE. Nature-based Pagans look back to prehistoric and historical agricultural societies for myths and rituals to enhance their relationship with the land. Rites of birth and death, planting, harvest, and thanksgiving are among the most ancient known human religious expressions and often involve singing, dancing and feasting. In the West, practices connected to the cycle of life and the seasons of the year preceded Christianity; for instance, in England and Ireland, stone circles oriented to astrological and solar events were built and probably used in worship as early as the third millennium BCE.
Pagans also look to ancient religions for alternative values and the deities associated with them. For some polytheist Pagans, the gods are paragons of neglected virtues such as honor (the respect and social status gained through effective leadership) or sensuality (the ability to take delight in physical pleasures, and especially to share that delight). For others, the gods are associated with natural forces such as creation and growth, or with human processes such as commerce, communication, diplomacy, or learning. Polytheist Pagans honor their gods in the hope that a deeper relationship will help them become more effective in their lives, as well as for the joy of the relationship itself. Such Pagans often draw myths, imagery, and ritual practices from the ancient religions of Greece, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Ireland, and more, or from contemporary polytheistic traditions, such as Hinduism or Afro-Caribbean religions.
After Christianity came to power in the Roman Empire in the 4th century CE, non-Christian religions were gradually outlawed in empire-controlled lands. However, Christianity seems to have coexisted with indigenous polytheistic religion in the villages and the countryside for many centuries. Pagan practices were syncretized, or combined, with Christian ones. Popular indigenous festivals and holy days were adapted to Christianity, and some goddesses and gods were gradually incorporated into the world of Christian saints. Although the Irish St. Brigid (based on the goddess Brighid) is the most famous example of this syncretism, probably the most influential piece of Christian-Pagan syncretism was the incorporation of Hellenistic Isis imagery into the veneration of the Catholic Mary; images of Mary and the baby Jesus still resemble portrayals of Isis and the baby Horus. Some indigenous religious shrines were destroyed, but others were converted into Christian places of worship by building churches around them. As the Roman Catholic Church grew in power in the West, it tried to stop what it could not assimilate; indigenous religious practices were displaced from the public sphere, although some must have continued, privately and in secret.
Scholars are skeptical that any kind of organized indigenous European religious practice lasted into the medieval period. However, stories of the goddesses and gods survived—sometimes as stories about saints—as did seasonal festivals and folk magic practices for fertility and healing. Among the educated elite, “high” magic intended to contact angels, demons, and spirits was also practiced. Many, perhaps even most, of these practitioners considered themselves to be Christians, although some undoubtedly resented the control of the Church. Christian authorities, in an attempt to maintain doctrinal and political control (or, perhaps, in genuine fear of indigenous beliefs), began associating fragments of ancient religions with malevolent “witchcraft.” The horned gods of fertility that appear in ancient Greek and European religion mutated into the Christian Devil, and the practices of folk magic and sorcery were conflated with heresy and Satanism. Stories of naked witches dancing secretly in forests, having licentious sex, and using magic to take revenge on their enemies titillated medieval Europeans, many of whom lived short, proscribed lives filled with difficult physical labor and few comforts.
In the 14th century, the practice of witchcraft became defined as a crime of heresy, punishable by death. The rubric of witchcraft included a wide range of practices, including the folk healing and herbalism used by midwives. Women who were healers were particularly vulnerable to accusations of witchcraft. In the medieval and Renaissance periods, medicine was in the process of being professionalized, to the exclusion of female practitioners. Eventually, even the practice of midwifery, long the domain of women, was deemed illegal if the midwife had no formal institutional training, yet access to these institutions was available only to men. The use of women’s healing skills, often the only ones available to the rural poor, was outlawed.
Charges of witchcraft were brought against women and men, sometimes for political reasons, and sometimes out of fear of Satanic influences. Inquisitors and witch hunters visited rural communities to seek out heresy and witchcraft. In some, residents were unable to protect their neighbors from being accused and executed; in others, however, residents took advantage of the witch hysteria to falsely accuse their enemies. Torture methods were used to extract confessions, leading many of the accused to describe lurid acts and accuse their neighbors in order to stop the pain. Estimates of the number of people executed for witchcraft during these centuries of persecution vary from the hundreds of thousands into the millions.
Puritan colonists also brought their belief in witchcraft with them when they crossed to the New World. The American colonies of the 17th century saw one significant outburst of witchcraft persecution: in 1692 in Salem, Massachusetts, twelve women and seven men were hanged as witches, and many more were jailed, some for years. Since then, the families of those who were executed have sought to have their ancestors legally cleared of wrongdoing, with the last six formally exonerated only in 1957.
Hans-Friedrich Mueller., Hans-Friedrich Mueller|ACTOR., The Great Courses|DIRECTOR., & The Great Courses|PRODUCER. (2020). Pagan World: Ancient Religions before Christianity: Early Pagan Religion in Mesopotamia . The Great Courses.
Other pagan religions included Egyptian mythology, Celtic polytheism, and Mesopotamian religions. The ancient Egyptians worshipped a multitude of gods and goddesses, attributing specific roles and powers to each. The Celtic pantheon consisted of gods associated with nature, warfare, and fertility, and their worship was closely tied to natural cycles and the environment. Mesopotamian religions, practiced in ancient Sumer, Babylon, and Assyria, involved the worship of deities like Anu, Enlil, and Marduk. These gods were believed to have control over various aspects of life, including creation, fertility, and war. Rituals and sacrifices were an integral part of Mesopotamian religious practices. Overall, the pagan world was a rich tapestry of religious beliefs, each with its own deities, rituals, and customs. These ancient religions played a significant role in shaping the beliefs and cultures of their respective civilizations. While Christianity eventually supplanted many pagan religions, their influence and mythology continue to fascinate and inspire people to this day..
Reviews for "Paganism and Eco-Spirituality: Ancient Religions' Emphasis on Environmentalism"
1. John - 2/5 - I was really disappointed with "The Pagan World: Ancient Religions Before Christianity". The book seemed like it was going to provide an in-depth analysis of ancient religions, but unfortunately, it fell short. The information provided felt superficial and lacked depth. It didn't go into enough detail about the beliefs and practices of various pagan religions, leaving me with more questions than answers. I was also hoping for a more objective approach, but it felt like the author had a biased view towards Christianity. Overall, I found it to be a shallow and biased look at ancient religions.
2. Sarah - 1/5 - I found "The Pagan World: Ancient Religions Before Christianity" to be incredibly tedious and boring. The writing style was dry and academic, making it difficult to stay engaged. It felt like reading a textbook rather than an engaging exploration of ancient religions. The book also lacked organization, jumping from one topic to another without any clear structure. I was hoping to learn more about the different belief systems and rituals, but the information provided was vague and unclear. Overall, I would not recommend this book to anyone looking for an interesting and comprehensive study of ancient religions.
3. Robert - 2/5 - As someone interested in ancient religions, I was excited to read "The Pagan World: Ancient Religions Before Christianity". However, I was left disappointed. The book lacked depth and failed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the ancient pagan world. It felt as though the author had a limited understanding of the subject matter and failed to convey their knowledge effectively. The writing style was also confusing and difficult to follow at times. I was left with more questions than answers, and overall, I would not recommend this book to those looking for a thorough exploration of ancient religions.