Paganism is an ancient religious practice that encompasses a variety of spiritual traditions. Unlike many organized religions, paganism does not have a centralized authority or a set of universal rules that all practitioners must follow. Instead, paganism is a highly individualized and diverse belief system that allows individuals to connect with nature and the divine in their own unique ways. While paganism does not have rigid rules or dogmas, there are some commonly held principles and guidelines that many pagans adhere to. One of the central tenets of paganism is the recognition and reverence of nature. Pagans often view the natural world as sacred and believe in the interconnectedness of all living beings.
The End of Paganism
"The ruin of Paganism, in the age of Theodosius, is perhaps the only example of the total extirpation of any ancient and popular superstition; and may therefore deserve to be considered, as a singular event in the history of the human mind."
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (XXVIII)
When Constantius II (the second son of Constantine I) visited Rome in AD 357, the Altar of Victory was removed from the Senate House. Although returned by his successor Julian, it again was taken away by Gratian in AD 382, this time at the instigation of Ambrose, bishop of Milan, who also persuaded the emperor to withdraw State subsidies, and prohibit the legacies and revenues that maintained many of the pagan cults, including endowment of the Vestal Virgins and the college of pontiffs. The title of pontifex maximus, which had signified authority over State religion since the time of Julius Caesar, was renounced as well.
These measures were protested by the pagan aristocracy, who feared that the loss of official recognition would threaten the legitimacy and efficacy of the cults themselves. But a deputation of senators led by Symmachus, the leading orator of his day, was refused even an audience with the emperor. After Gratian's death, there was another petition, and in AD 384 the question again was put to his successor Valentinian II.
Hearing of this attempt to restore the Altar, Ambrose sent a letter to the young emperor, asking to see the petition and threatening censure and sacrilege if favorably received by Valentinian.
"Salvation will not be assured unless each one truly worships the true God, that is, the God of the Christians. Since you have truly shown your faith in God, most Christian Emperor, I am amazed that your zeal for the faith, and our protection and devotion, have inspired hope in some that you are now obligated to erect altars to the gods of the pagans and to furnish funds for the upkeep of profane sacrifices. If today some pagan emperor�God forbid!�should erect an altar to idols and compel Christians to hold their meetings there, to attend the sacrifices, so that the breath and nostrils of Christians would be filled with the ashes from the altar, cinders from the sacrifice, and smoke from the the wood. the Christian, compelled to come into the Senate, would on these conditions regard it as persecution. Now that you are Emperor, will Christians be forced to take their oath on an altar. A decree like this cannot be enforced without sacrilege. I beg you not to make such a decree, nor pass a law, nor sign a decree of this sort."
Epistle XVII
Again representing his pagan colleagues in the Senate, Symmachus, who had assumed the prefecture of Rome that year, made an eloquent plea that the Altar be returned and revenues restored to the priesthood, arguing that the fortune of Rome depended on maintaining its ancient customs and religious institutions.
"Man's reason moves entirely in the dark; his knowledge of divine influences can be drawn from no better source than from the recollection and the evidences of good fortune received from them. If long passage of time lends validity to religious observances, we ought to keep faith with so many centuries, we ought to follow our forefathers who followed their forefathers and were blessed in so doing. Let us imagine that Rome herself stands in your presence and pleads with you thus, 'Best of emperors, fathers of your country, respect my length of years won for me by the dutiful observance of rite, let me continue to practise my ancient ceremonies, for I do not regret them. Let me live in my own way, for I am free. This worship of mine brought the whole world under the rule of my laws, these sacred rites drove back Hannibal from my walls and the Senones [Gauls] from the Capitol'. And so we ask for peace for the gods of our fathers, for the gods of our native land. It is reasonable that whatever each of us worships is really to be considered one and the same. We gaze up at the same stars, the sky covers us all, the same universe compasses us. What does it matter what practical system we adopt in our search for the truth? Not by one avenue only can we arrive at so tremendous a secret."
Relation III
Having read the petition, Ambrose wrote to refute each point that had been made.
"And why should I say anything of the Senones, whose entrance into the inmost Capitol the remnant of the Romans could not have prevented, had not a goose by its frightened cackling betrayed them? See what sort of protectors the Roman temples have. Where was Jupiter at that time? Was he speaking in the goose? But why should I deny that their sacred rites fought for the Romans? For Hannibal also worshipped the same gods. Let them choose then which they will. If these sacred rites conquered in the Romans, then they were overcome in the Carthaginians; if they triumphed in the Carthaginians, they certainly did not benefit the Romans. Let, then, that invidious complaint of the Roman people come to an end. Rome has given no such charge. She speaks with other words. 'Why do you daily stain me with the useless blood of the harmless herd? Trophies of victory depend not on the entrails of the flocks, but on the strength of those who fight. Was there then no Altar of Victory? I mourn over my downfall, my old age is tinged with that shameful bloodshed. I do not blush to be converted with the whole world in my old age.'"
Epistle XVIII
The Altar was not restored; indeed, measures against pagans became more repressive. Ambrose also exerted extraordinary dominance over Theodosius I (AD 379-395), to whom he threatened excommunication for having ordered the massacre of thousands in the circus at Thessalonica. The chastened emperor presented himself, bareheaded and in sackcloth at the cathedral in Milan. The next year, in AD 391, he issued the first in a series of edicts that prohibited all pagan cult worship and effectively made Christianity the official religion in the empire. They are preserved in the Codex Theodosianus, a codification of legislative enactments (constitutiones) from the time of Constantine, issued by Theodosius II in AD 438. Divided into titles and arranged chronologically, it is comprised of sixteen books, the last of which deals with pagans, sacrifices, and temples. Addressed to the prefect of Rome and issued on February 24, AD 391, the rescript stated that
"No person shall pollute himself with sacrificial animals; no person shall slaughter an innocent victim; no person shall approach the shrines, shall wander through the temples, or revere the images formed by mortal labor, lest he become guilty by divine and human laws" (CTh. XVI.10.10).
Following bloody riots in Alexandria, the Temple of Serapis was destroyed by a Christian mob. As Prudentius confessed a decade or so later: "I love a temple of the heart, not one of marble" (Against Symmachus, II.249).
There was no official proscription of paganism, however, until AD 392, when, in a long decree, Theodosius forbade, not only the offering of blood sacrifice, but all forms of pagan worship, including private religious rites. No sacrifice in any place or any city was permitted. Privately, no wine or incense was to be offered, no votive candles or burning lamps, no suspended wreaths, either to one's genius (the tutelary spirit of a person or place) or to the Lars and Penates (the household gods). A burnt offering or the divining of entrails became a treasonable offense, while one who practiced more humble pagan rites, such as the veneration of a statue or even tying a ribbon around a tree, was threatened with the loss of property (CTh. XVI.10.12).
And yet, aspects of the old religion did survive.
"It must ingenuously be confessed, that the ministers of the Catholic church imitated the profane model, which they were impatient to destroy. The most respectable bishops had persuaded themselves, that the ignorant rustics would more cheerfully renounce the superstitions of Paganism, if they found some resemblance, some compensation, in the bosom of Christianity. The religion of Constantine achieved, in less than a century, the final conquest of the Roman empire: but the victors themselves were insensibly subdued by the arts of their vanquished rivals."
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (XXVIII)
Theodosius was no more tolerant of heretical Christians. Reversing the support given to Arianism by Constantius II and Valens in the East, he issued a series of edicts to enforce orthodoxy.
"It is Our will that all the peoples who are ruled by the administration of Our Clemency shall practice that religion which the divine Peter the Apostle transmitted to the Romans. The rest, whom We adjudge demented and insane, shall sustain the infamy of heretical dogmas, their meeting places shall not receive the name of churches, and they shall be smitten first by divine vengeance and secondly by the retribution of Our own initiative" (CTh. XVI.1.2).
Symmachus was a younger contemporary and friend of Praetextatus, prefect of Rome (AD 367), whom Jerome, in his letter To Pammachius Against John of Jerusalem, characterized as a "a profane person and an idolater." It is Praetextatus who banished the rival of Pope Damasus, quipping to the pontiff, "Make me bishop of Rome, and I will at once be a Christian" (VIII). And it is he who discusses the Roman calendar in the Saturnalia of Macrobius.
The fallen Corinthian column above, its drums neatly toppled, is from the Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens). Blown over by a gale in 1852, it once stood almost sixty feet high.
References: Prefect and Emperor: The Relationes of Symmachus, AD 384 (1973) translated by R. H. Barrow; Prudentius: Against Symmachus (1949) translated by H. J. Thomson (Loeb Classical Library); Edward Gibbon: The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1995) edited by David Womersley (Penguin Classics); The Theodosian Code and Novels and the Sirmondian Constitutions (1952) translated by Clyde Pharr; Roman Civilization: Selected Readings: Vol II. The Empire (1990) edited by Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold; A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, Series II (Vol X: Ambrose) (1890-1896) edited by by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace; The Later Roman Empire (1993) by Averil Cameron.
A ‘defining feature of masculine men’ — soldier’s Norse pagan faith earns beard waiver
A soldier serving in Afghanistan with the Nevada Army Guard has been granted a religious accommodation to grow a beard in accordance with a Norse pagan faith that traces its origins to Scandinavia. Sgt. 1st Class Benjamin Hopper, a 34-year-old Alabama native and member of the Nevada Army Guard’s 3665th Ordnance Company, was granted the waiver following a lengthy review process that concluded with the Army’s acknowledgement of his sincerity as a heathen.
Hopper’s exemption is the latest example of the military’s effort — most notably the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force — to acknowledge the diverse religious practices represented in its ranks. The first such accommodation came in 2017 following years of beard-exemption requests and legal pressure from Sikh soldiers seeking to preserve religious traditions while wearing a U.S. uniform. Then, in November 2018, Staff Sgt. Abdul Rahman Gaitan became the first Muslim airman to be granted the exemption in observance of the tenets of his faith. Because the 2017 directive is technically applicable to all religions, final judgement is often left to individual leadership to discern authentic exemption request from insincere.
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Further blurring the beard waiver criteria is that while Norse paganism encourages the growth of a beard, or “skegg,” the religion doesn’t require it. The Open Halls Project, an advocacy group for heathens serving in the military, sought to clarify any existing confusion in a 2017 post about beard exemptions. “There is no religious requirement for beards in Heathenry,” the post read. “Sikhs are allowed to wear beards and turbans because it actually is a religious requirement of their faith that they do so. Kesh, or ‘uncut hair’ is one of the five religious requirements of baptized Sikhs. We, as Heathens, have no such religious requirement with regards to hair.” No matter the religious requirements, the Army interpreted Hopper’s request as genuine.
“My personal faith is deeply tied to the modern warrior lifestyle that I have been able to live during my military career,” said Hopper, adding that the beard has never hindered his ability to put mission first. “In short, it is honoring the pillars of heathenism, our ancestors and ancient gods and way of life.” Hopper, like service members who have sought exemptions before, was advised to meet with a chaplain to present his case. Chaplains cannot officially approve or deny requests, but recommendations based on perceived sincerity can be made on the service member’s behalf. “The chaplain corps will work with any military member to aid them in a genuine pursuit of an accommodation,” Joint Force State Chaplain Maj. Donald Crandell said. “However, we are not actively promoting a trend in this direction or seeking to normalize it.”
But a trend, as minimal as it may be, has certainly been stirring among the rank-and-file. The already-growing list of religious exemption requests inflated earlier this year when Spc. John Hoskins applied for a beard exemption as part of his proclaimed devotion to the Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster — a faith also known as “Pastafarianism.”
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The importance of one’s hair or beard can never be understated.
“This request is based on my deeply and sincerely held belief in the Pastafarian faith,” Hoskins wrote in his request to the Army. “It is my personally held belief that growing a beard will bring me closer to my God and bring me into his favor.” This time the Army declined, but only after Hoskins’ request made it all the way to the desk of a deputy chief of staff.
“The Army takes pride in sustaining a culture where all personnel are treated with dignity and respect and not discriminated against based on race, color, religion, gender and national origin,” Cathy Brown Vandermaarel, an Army spokeswoman, told Army Times when asked about the decision to deny Hoskins’ request. “While we cannot speak to the specifics of any particular case, religious accommodation can be disapproved if it is determined that the request is not based on a sincerely held religious belief or if the accommodation would create a specific hazard that cannot be reasonably mitigated.” In Afghanistan, meanwhile, Hopper keeps his waiver on him at all times in case any superiors question the facial feature he refers to as a “sacred and defining feature of masculine men.” Regulations specify a beard can be no longer than 2 inches in length. “Once I present my memorandum for record and cite all of the applicable regulations and directives, the focus on the beard tends to go away, for the most part,” he said in the release. “I see it as a phase very similar to when the Army authorized the wear of black socks during the fitness test. It is something new and authorized, and you will always encounter people who do not like change. “That is just life.”
Observation Post is the Military Times one-stop shop for all things off-duty. Stories may reflect author observations.
Pagan rules
We often talk about how there are no “rules” in Wicca other than the Wiccan Rede, but etiquette is something different. Etiquette is defined as “the customary code of polite behavior in society or among members of a particular profession or group”. It tells us how to behave to make OTHERS more comfortable and feel respected. People are more comfortable when they know what to expect.
The below guidelines are widely accepted and may be especially useful if you are new to the craft, or have asked to be a guest in the circle of another coven.
In some cases, you may find that we personally do not follow those rules in OUR circle. (like the one about pets in the circle). But, it’s important to know the guidelines in case your join another circle, attend a public ritual, etc. Remember, a coven is a group of “like minded witches”, so please offer feedback if there’s anything that you’d like to add or discuss.
General Wiccan Etiquette
• It's a huge no-no to identify anyone as participating in Wicca. Wiccans are still subject to persecution and prejudice. It may seriously harm someone to share this information with even one person.
• Don't assume that since some people know Jane Doe is a Witch, everyone does. A Witch may "come out of the broom closet" to only certain people.
• If by accident, something you say may have tipped people off, tell the Witch involved as soon as possible exactly what was said so she/he can decide how to handle the situation.
• Don't proselytize. You can tell people about it if they ask, but Wiccans are not looking to “convert’ people.
Altar Etiquette
Wiccan etiquette around altars is especially important. A Wiccan altar is sacred space, and ritual tools are highly attuned to the person using them.
• Do not touch any item on the altar, and assume that it’s not appropriate to touch any ritual tool or item. If you are close to them, or you Circle together, it's okay to ask if you can hold it.
• Interpret any hesitation as a "no." Gracefully accept a "no." It may not be anything personal. Some things are simply too private to share, and many people put a great deal of effort into consecrating and charging their ritual and magickal items.
• Ask before placing things on a group altar. Usually for group work, you will know ahead of time the kinds of things that might be appropriate. But sometimes very specific energy is being raised, and other items may not serve the ritual.
• Avoid talking about your sacred items and spiritual practices with "outsiders." People who don't use them don't understand, and it dilutes your Power to share sacred things with them. Especially if they turn out to be judgmental about it.
Wiccan Etiquette For Magick Spells
Here are some magick tips to help you keep yourself -- and others -- safe when you are doing magick.
• Do your research before doing magick. Magick spells are not for beginners -- too much can go wrong.
When you start practicing magick spells, start small and easy, and make sure you put in the all-important caveat: "This I call, its equivalent or better, and it harm none."
• Never do a magick spell that seeks to control anyone else. That includes spells you think are for their own good. (This puts a damper on most love spells.)
This also means magick should not be used to try to change people, or influence their decisions.
• Only cast a spell for another person if they have asked you to do so. And then only the spell they've asked for.
• The exception to the prior 2 tips is when you have spiritual authority for another's well-being. For example, animals or children under 12 who are under your care. But even so, check carefully to make sure what you are planning is aligned with Divine will.
• Remember the Wiccan Rede . . . "Do as you will, and harm none."
In magick, this tips your hand toward caution. Using magick to do something that harms others incidentally can be as harmful as harming others intentionally.
• Think through the repercussions. Don't do large-scale magick recklessly. Weather magick will change the natural pattern . . . You could be responsible for far-off droughts or floods, or serious disruption of local weather patterns.
• Be respectful of others; don't do magick in public. Your magick-making should take place somewhere other people are not likely to interrupt you, and your spells are best kept out of sight. This is partly a matter of respect for others' space. And partly to keep your magick spells strong and on-focus.
• Clean up your magickal residue. Release the directions and deities, erase signs and symbols, and open the circle before you leave.
Etiquette During Ritual
• If you are personally invited to a circle do not assume it is O.K. to bring anyone else. If you have a friend, relative, child or significant other whom you would like to bring please ask the High Priest or High Priestess first. Some covens are more open than others .
• If you have been invited to a Circle which is not publicly advertised please do not discuss it with anyone without checking with the Leaders first. Private circles are by invitation only and it is never good to assume who the other attendees of a particular circle will be. Respect the privacy of those in the circle and never mention who was there to anyone.
• If you have been a copy of the ritual in advance, read it completely. Bring your copy to the ritual. If you have been asked to perform a speaking part in the ritual, read your part aloud before the ritual so that you are comfortable speaking the words. You may choose to reprint your speaking part in a larger size so that it can be easily read in the candlelight of the circle.
• Offer to help the organizers of the ritual. Rituals can become expensive and are a lot of work for the organizers. Offering to help, and following through, can make the ritual planning process much better for the organizers. Offer to do things like bring fresh flowers, arrive early to set up, etc. Fulfill your commitments. If you've agreed to do something for the ritual, etiquette requires that you see it through because others are depending on you. If you absolutely can't, then it is your responsibility to find someone to adequately fill in for you.
• Support the leaders! Avoid complaining about them or the ritual. People need to hear what they did right. Unless they specifically ask for constructive feedback, bite your tongue. Show them a better way, if you have one, by leading the next ritual yourself.
• Be on time. You should arrive at least 30 minutes before the start of the ritual to relax, center, and socialize before the ritual. If you are going to be more than 15 minutes late, consider not attending the ritual. Ask the organizers the best way to handle lateness.
• Plan to spend as long as necessary at the ritual, and try not to plan things for afterwards. Rituals take as long as they take, and if someone has a time constraint, it can be very distracting and disruptive to the energy flow.
• Ask what the mode of dress is for the circle you will be attending. Dress appropriately.
• Come to the ritual clean, and refrain from wearing any type of perfume or scents that may interfere with the ritual.
• Before the ritual, remove all unnecessary jewelry, hats, watches, etc before entering the circle.
• Remove your shoes, if possible. It’s much easier to ground with the Earth.
• Help clean up! It's amazing how people who are so appreciative can vanish as soon as the ritual ends.
• Participate fully. Sing, and if you don't know the words, hum, or clap, or drum. . . It's everyone's participation that makes a ritual work. If you're not adding to the ritual, you are a weight on the collective energy, so join in however you can.
• Stay on focus -- don't chit-chat. Come early to have time to socialize. Ritual time is too precious - and too scarce - to be frittered away.
• No talking in circle unless you are specifically invited. Stories, anecdotes and discussion in circle are strictly limited to craft related topics. And remember: whatever you hear in circle is confidential. If you find someone's story valuable and would like to share it outside the circle (without names of course) please ask permission of the story teller first.
• Always move deosil (clockwise) when walking around the circle. In other words: when you enter the circle turn left and you will be going the right way
• When the Quarters or Elements (the four directions) are being called turn and face the same direction the leader is facing. If you are unfamiliar with arm gestures and responses being used just stand quietly or try to follow along.
• The Leader may invoke a god or goddess during the ritual which means the deity has entered the body of the leader and may speak through them. Do not talk at all during an invocation unless the god or goddess specifically asks YOU a question.
• If you receive some juice or wine do not drink it all immediately. Be prepared to offer a toast to the gods. It is customary to offer part of your juice, wine and cake or cookie to the gods as a libation. There may be a bowl or bowls provided for this purpose or if the circle is outdoors the libations may be put directly on the Earth. Watch members of the host coven.
• Be aware when moving into and out of sacred space. Ritual etiquette and magickal process require that if you need to leave the Circle, cut a "doorway" in the Circle boundaries, and seal it behind you. (Or have someone do this for you.) Repeat when re-entering. But it's best to plan ahead and not leave the Circle unless you absolutely must. Even with care, energy is disrupted and lost, so the best ritual etiquette is to stay with it all the way through.
• It's not Drop-In/Out. It is rude to leave a church in the middle of a service, and it is just as bad ritual etiquette in Pagan circles. If you know ahead of time that you must leave, let others know. and be prepared: they may tell you it would not be appropriate, and that if you can't stay for the whole thing, to please not join in. If something comes up and you must leave, unexpectedly, tell someone quietly what is going on, and unobtrusively exit the Circle.
• No cell phones in Circle. A phone ringing immediately takes everyone's attention from the internal to the external, from the magick to a distraction. Turn your phone off and forget about it for the duration of the ritual.
• Never take photos during ritual. Wiccan rituals are not spectator sports. If you are taking pictures, you aren't participating in the ritual. Cameras remove you from the energy, like a wall between you and experience. Also, it shifts everyone's focus away from the magick. Only take photos of Witches at gatherings with their express permission.
• Do not bring children and animals, unless you know for certain they are welcome at the ritual.
• Drugs and alcohol are not appropriate in sacred space. Even, sometimes, prescribed drugs should not be used -- anything that affects your attention, behavior, or energy will affect the ritual and should be avoided. Individual groups may have different rules on whether intoxicants may be used within ritual, but in any case, you should arrive at the ritual clean and sober, and able to function properly.
• Bring something for the feast that everyone can enjoy, if at all possible. If you are attending a public ritual, make a small card listing the ingredients of your dish.
Pagans often view the natural world as sacred and believe in the interconnectedness of all living beings. This belief is often reflected in rituals and ceremonies that honor the cycles of the seasons, the phases of the moon, and the rhythms of the earth. Another important aspect of paganism is the concept of personal responsibility.
Many pagans believe that they are responsible for their own actions and must strive to live in harmony with themselves, others, and the natural world. This includes practicing ethical behavior, treating others with respect and kindness, and being mindful of the impact of their actions on the environment. In addition to these general principles, paganism also encompasses a wide range of specific practices and traditions. Some pagans follow specific pantheons or deities, while others may engage in practices such as divination, spellwork, or shamanic journeying. These practices can vary greatly depending on individual beliefs and preferences. Ultimately, paganism is a deeply personal and individualized spiritual path. While there are some common principles and practices that many pagans follow, there are no strict rules or regulations that dictate how one must practice paganism. Instead, paganism encourages individuals to explore and develop their own unique relationship with the divine and to find their own path towards spiritual fulfillment..
Reviews for "The Influence of Paganism on Contemporary Witchcraft"
1. Jane - 2 stars
I found "Pagan Rules" to be quite disappointing. The plot was predictable and lacked originality. The characters felt flat and uninteresting, making it difficult for me to form a connection with any of them. The pacing was also off, with certain parts dragging on while others felt rushed. Overall, I was not impressed with this book and wouldn't recommend it to others.
2. John - 1 star
"Pagan Rules" was a complete letdown for me. The writing style was disjointed and confusing, making it hard to follow the story. The world-building was underdeveloped, leaving me with more questions than answers. Additionally, the dialogue felt forced and unrealistic, further detaching me from the narrative. I struggled to finish this book and felt no satisfaction at the end.
3. Sarah - 2 stars
I had high hopes for "Pagan Rules" but unfortunately, it fell flat for me. The characters lacked depth and the romance felt forced. The plot had potential, but it became too convoluted and hard to follow. The pacing was uneven, with some parts dragging on and others rushing through important moments. While the concept was intriguing, the execution left much to be desired.
4. Michael - 1 star
I regret wasting my time on "Pagan Rules". The writing was filled with cliches and lacked creativity. The characters were one-dimensional and lacked any real development. The plot was predictable and offered nothing new or exciting. Overall, this book was a disappointment and I would not recommend it to anyone looking for an engaging read.