Witches and Their Accusers: The Psychology of Witch Trials

The demonization of witches in early modern Europe was a phenomenon that swept across the continent during the 16th and 17th centuries. This period saw an unprecedented persecution of individuals, primarily women, who were accused of practicing witchcraft. The fear and hysteria surrounding witches were fueled by various factors. The prevailing belief in the existence of witchcraft was deeply rooted in Christian theology, which portrayed witches as servants of Satan who had made a pact with the devil. This belief was reinforced and propagated by religious authorities, who saw witches as a threat to the established order and a manifestation of evil. Society at the time was characterized by superstition and a deep fear of the unknown.

Society at the time was characterized by superstition and a deep fear of the unknown. Natural disasters, crop failures, and epidemics were often attributed to the machinations of witches. The fear of witches also fed into existing gender and social hierarchies.

The demonization of witches in early modern Europe

From wise-women of the early modern era, via the witch-hunts of the inquisition, to the dawning of a more scientific approach to diagnosis and disease management, the RCP library collections inform us about the supernatural beliefs, political manoeuvring, and religious fanaticism that led to the death by burning of about 500,000 people – 85% of them women – between 1400 and 1700.

In Women and the practice of medical care in early modern Europe, 1400-1800, Leigh Whaley discusses the medieval role of the wise-woman, midwife and healer: a role that became discredited and conflated with the demonized figure of the witch in the early modern era. Whaley argues that this was part of a movement in which ‘a number of strategies were taken to eliminate women and other “popular” healers from the medical “profession.”’ The introduction of licensing and university education (for men only) was also part of a move from local healers to state sanctioned practitioners. The ‘Act for the Appointing of Physicians and Surgeons’ of 1684 condemned unlicensed practitioners of medicine as those ‘who try to cure with the use of sorcery and witchcraft…to the high displeasure of God, …most especially of them that cannot discern the uncunning from the cunning.’

In The medical man and the witch during the Renaissance, Gregory Zilboorg outlines the terrifying hypothesis of the malleus maleficarum, or ‘hammer of witches’. This was published sometime between 1487 and 1489, and led to a new era of persecution by religious forces of people accused of witchcraft, sorcery or heresy. The treatise is in three parts. The first argues that he who does not believe in the existence of witches is either wrong or a heretic themselves. The second part describes the different types of witches and methods used to identify a witch. The third part deals with the legal forms of examining and sentencing a witch. Some of the chilling headings in the second part include:

Of the way whereby a formal pact with evil is made; Here follows the way whereby witches copulate with those devils known as Incubi; How witch midwives commit most horrid crimes when they either kill children or offer them to devils in most accursed wise; How they raise and stir up hailstorms and tempests, and cause lightening to blast both men and beasts.

In other words, witches and former wise women were responsible for almost anything that might go wrong in medieval life.

In Witchcraft and hysteria in Elizabethan London, Michael MacDonald discusses the contribution of RCP fellow Edward Jordan to the cause of scientific progress against superstition and the supernatural interpretation of disease. In his 1603 publication, Briefe discourse of a disease called the suffocation of the mother, Jordan introduces the clinical concept of hysteria. The main thrust of the treatise is an examination of the case of Mary Glover, who in a famous case in 1602 was allegedly bewitched by a London shopkeeper, Elizabeth Jackson. Elizabeth was found guilty at an infamous trial which presented conflicting evidence from a range of eminent physicians of the time, including John Argent , who was later president of the college eight times.

The RCP library contains print and electronic resources on the history of medicine, genealogy and health and social policy and well as some subjects – like witchcraft – that you might not expect. It is open to all, Monday to Friday, and the catalogue is available online.

Claire Sexton, collections development librarian

The books mentioned in this post are:

• Leigh Whaley, (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011)
• Gregory Zilboorg, The medical man and the witch during the Renaissance (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935)
• Michael MacDonald, Witchcraft and hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover case (London: Routledge, 1991).

The RCP library contains print and electronic resources on the history of medicine, genealogy and health and social policy and well as some subjects – like witchcraft – that you might not expect. It is open to all, Monday to Friday, and the catalogue is available online.

Women, particularly those who were old, poor, or socially marginalized, were seen as more susceptible to witchcraft and were therefore singled out for accusations. The process of identifying and prosecuting witches was deeply flawed and relied heavily on coerced confessions, often obtained through torture. Accusations were usually made by individuals seeking to settle personal scores or gain power and status. The accused were subjected to gruesome trials, where they faced torture, humiliation, and ultimately execution. This vicious cycle of accusation, persecution, and execution perpetuated the belief in witches and fueled the demonization of these individuals. The demonization of witches also had a profound impact on broader society. The fear and persecution of witches led to a widespread hysteria, known as the "witch craze," which swept across Europe. The witch hunts claimed the lives of thousands of innocent individuals, particularly women, who were deemed guilty based on flimsy evidence and superstitious beliefs. The persecution of witches created a climate of fear and suspicion, destroying social bonds and undermining trust within communities. In recent years, there has been a growing recognition of the injustices perpetrated during the witch hunts. The demonization of witches is now seen as a gross miscarriage of justice and a reflection of the prejudices and anxieties of the time. Efforts are being made to remember and honor the victims of the witch hunts, as well as to understand the historical and social context in which these events occurred. The demonization of witches in early modern Europe was a dark chapter in human history, characterized by fear, hysteria, and prejudice. It serves as a stark reminder of the dangers of scapegoating and the devastating consequences that can arise from the belief in supernatural phenomena..

Reviews for "The "Malleus Maleficarum": A Catalyst for Witch Hunts in Europe"

1. John - 2 stars

"The demonization of witches in early modern Europe is an interesting topic, but this book didn't do it justice. The author's writing style is dull and repetitive, making it hard to stay engaged with the material. Additionally, while the book claims to provide a nuanced view of witchcraft trials, it ultimately falls into the trap of romanticizing witches and portraying them only as innocent victims. I wanted a more balanced and critical examination of the topic, but unfortunately, this book didn't deliver."

2. Sarah - 3 stars

"I was excited to read 'The demonization of witches in early modern Europe' as I have always been fascinated by witchcraft history. However, I found this book to be too academic and inaccessible for the average reader. The author uses complex language and assumes prior knowledge of the subject matter, which made it difficult for me to fully grasp the arguments being presented. While it is clear that the author has done extensive research, I wish they had made the information more accessible and engaging for a wider audience."

3. Michael - 2 stars

"I was disappointed by 'The demonization of witches in early modern Europe.' The author's bias and agenda are evident throughout the book, making it hard to trust the information presented. Instead of providing a well-rounded view of the witch trials, the author seems more interested in pushing their own narrative and painting witches as innocent victims. I was hoping for a more objective analysis of the historical context and societal factors that contributed to the witch hunt, but this book fell short in that regard."

The Witch Hunts in Scotland: A Case Study of Religious Fervor