The ancient pagan world had a complex network of relations before the spread of Christianity. These relationships were often centered around shared religious beliefs, trade and economic ties, and political alliances. In terms of religious beliefs, the pagan world was characterized by polytheism, with cultures worshipping a multitude of gods and goddesses. These beliefs differed across regions and civilizations, but there were often shared elements and a recognition of common deities. The worship of gods such as Zeus, Apollo, Aphrodite, and Odin was widespread among various pagan cultures. Trade and economic ties were another important aspect of pagan world relations.
Since many witch “confessions” were obtained under torture, and the Catholic Church and others could be wildly reactionary to any deviance, all of this is hearsay. (And think of the splinters!) But the image of the witch on the broomstick combined anxieties on women’s sexuality, drug use, and religious freedom into one enduring myth.
It s not clear exactly when the broom itself was first invented, but the act of sweeping goes back to ancient times when people likely used bunches of thin sticks, reeds and other natural fibers to sweep aside dust or ash from a fire or hearth. Although the Devil is present in some form in many religions and can be compared to some mythological gods, he s arguably best known for his role in Christianity.
Trade and economic ties were another important aspect of pagan world relations. Ancient civilizations relied on the exchange of goods and resources, leading to the establishment of trade networks. The Phoenicians, for example, were renowned traders who traversed the Mediterranean, linking various pagan cultures.
The First Known Depiction of a Witch on a Broomstick
In the 15th century, the image of the witch flying on a broomstick first appeared, its meaning laden with sexual and spiritual depravity.
by Allison Meier October 24, 2016 October 27, 2021Share
Witches illustrated in Martin Le Franc’s ‘Le Champion des Dames’ (1451) (via Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF)/Wikimedia)
As Halloween approaches, it offers a chance to delve into the occult, phantasmagoric, otherworldly, and haunted aspects of our world. In a series of posts, we’re exploring art history that offers a portal to a darker side of culture.
The visual of the witch on a broomstick is so ubiquitous as to be benign. Before the Wicked Witch of the West or Harry Potter took flight on the spindly cleaning tool, the image first appeared in the 15th century. Two women in marginal illustrations of the 1451 edition of French poet Martin Le Franc’s Le Champion des Dames (The Defender of Ladies), a manuscript now in the Bibliothèque nationale de France (BNF), are soaring, one on a stick, the other on a broom.
According to Witchcraft in Europe, 400-1700: A Documentary History, edited by University of Pennsylvania history professors Alan Charles Kors and Edward Peters, Le Champion des Dames has “the first such illustration in the pictorial history of witchcraft.” Le Franc’s long poem about virtuous women is interrupted by a discussion of witchcraft, and the covered heads of the two women marks them as Waldensians. This Christian movement emerged in the 12th-century. With its tenet that any member could be a priest, even a woman, and perform sacraments and preach, the bloody ire of the Catholic Church soon followed. That these heretics would also meddle with the supernatural was not a leap, but why the broomstick?
Francisco Goya, “Linda maestra!” (1797-98), etching, aquatint, and drypoint on laid paper (via Brooklyn Museum/Wikimedia)
Dylan Thuras at Atlas Obscura wrote that the “broom was a symbol of female domesticity, yet the broom was also phallic, so riding on one was a symbol of female sexuality, thus femininity and domesticity gone wild.” The two women in Le Champion des Dames importantly don’t appear deformed or grotesque, they are ordinary; their corruption cannot be visually perceived. And pagan rituals before the 15th century had involved phallic forms, so the shape of the broomstick between a woman’s legs had both a sexual and spiritually deviant meaning to the Church.
Yet it was racier than that. Richard Cavendish’s 1970 An Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Supernatural cites a man, Guillaume Edelin, who confessed to flying on a broom in 1453 as the first known reference to the act. Just a few years later, in 1456, emerged the mention of “flying ointment.” Either given by the devil or crafted by a witch, the potion allowed a human to take flight, likely for a trip to the Witches’ Sabbath.
Albert Joseph Penot, “Départ pour le Sabbat” (1910) (via Wikimedia)
You might be able to guess where this is going. Megan Garber at the Atlantic cites the 15th-century writing of Jordanes de Bergamo, who stated:
The vulgar believe, and the witches confess, that on certain days or nights they anoint a staff and ride on it to the appointed place or anoint themselves under the arms and in other hairy places.
Hallucinogens of the time, such as ergot fungus, couldn’t just be eaten. They could be applied to mucous membranes, such as on genitalia, or those “other hairy places,” as Bergamo coyly put it. Matt Soniak at Mental Floss quotes Antoine Rose, who in 1477, when accused of witchcraft in France, confessed that the Devil gave her flying potions. She would “smear the ointment on the stick, put it between her legs and say ‘Go, in the name of the Devil, go!’”
Since many witch “confessions” were obtained under torture, and the Catholic Church and others could be wildly reactionary to any deviance, all of this is hearsay. (And think of the splinters!) But the image of the witch on the broomstick combined anxieties on women’s sexuality, drug use, and religious freedom into one enduring myth.
Related
Tagged: art and religion , Art History , Articles , Halloween , Religion , witchcraftThese trade routes facilitated the exchange of ideas, customs, and technologies. Pagan world relations were also driven by political alliances. Powerful pagan empires and kingdoms sought to expand their influence and secure their territories through agreements and alliances with other pagan states. The Roman Empire, for instance, formed alliances with various Germanic and Celtic tribes, as well as with the Parthians in the East. Additionally, pagan cultures often engaged in warfare and conflicts with one another. These conflicts were driven by various factors, including territorial disputes, resource competition, and conflicting religious beliefs. The ancient Greek city-states, for example, frequently waged wars against each other, while the Barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire marked a series of military conflicts between various pagan groups. Overall, the pagan world had a complex web of relations, characterized by shared religious beliefs, trade networks, political alliances, and conflicts. This interconnectedness contributed to the cultural exchange and development of the ancient pagan civilizations before the rise of Christianity..
Reviews for "Pagan Festivals and Celebrations: Exploring their Significance and Origins"
1. Sarah - 1 out of 5 stars - I found "Thepagan worl ancient relations before christianity" to be extremely unengaging and difficult to follow. The writing was confusing and lacked a clear structure, making it hard to understand the concepts being discussed. Additionally, the book seemed to rely heavily on assumptions and speculation rather than solid evidence and research. Overall, I was disappointed with this book and would not recommend it to others.
2. Jason - 2 out of 5 stars - While "Thepagan worl ancient relations before christianity" had an interesting premise, I was ultimately disappointed with the execution. The author seemed to jump between different topics and time periods without providing enough context or explanation, leaving me confused and frustrated. Furthermore, the writing style was overly dense and academic, making it difficult to fully grasp the concepts being presented. Overall, I feel that this book had potential but fell short in delivering a coherent and engaging narrative.
3. Emily - 2 out of 5 stars - I had high hopes for "Thepagan worl ancient relations before christianity" but was let down by its lack of depth and analysis. The book did not provide enough evidence or examples to support its claims, leaving many of the arguments feeling weak and unsubstantiated. Additionally, the writing style was overly dry and academic, making the reading experience feel more like a chore than an enjoyable exploration of ancient relations. Overall, I feel that this book needed more rigorous research and a clearer focus to be truly engaging.