Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival held in late December. It was a time of revelry and indulgence, during which normal societal norms were temporarily overturned. The festival was dedicated to the god Saturn, the god of agriculture and time. Saturnalia was one of the most popular and widely celebrated festivals in ancient Rome. During Saturnalia, the usual order of society was turned upside down. Slaves were allowed to participate in the festivities alongside their masters, and for a few days, they were even treated as equals.
Slaves were allowed to participate in the festivities alongside their masters, and for a few days, they were even treated as equals. In fact, it was common for slave owners to serve their slaves meals and participate in activities with them. This temporary reversal of roles was a way to bring unity and harmony to society by temporarily erasing social divisions.
Did the Romans Invent Christmas?
Did the first Christian Roman emperor appropriate the pagan festival of Saturnalia to celebrate the birth of Christ? Matt Salusbury weighs the evidence.
Matt Salusbury | Published in History Today Volume 59 Issue 12 December 2009It was a public holiday celebrated around December 25th in the family home. A time for feasting, goodwill, generosity to the poor, the exchange of gifts and the decoration of trees. But it wasn’t Christmas. This was Saturnalia, the pagan Roman winter solstice festival. But was Christmas, Western Christianity’s most popular festival, derived from the pagan Saturnalia?
The first-century AD poet Gaius Valerius Catullus described Saturnalia as ‘the best of times’: dress codes were relaxed, small gifts such as dolls, candles and caged birds were exchanged.
Saturnalia saw the inversion of social roles. The wealthy were expected to pay the month’s rent for those who couldn’t afford it, masters and slaves to swap clothes. Family households threw dice to determine who would become the temporary Saturnalian monarch. The poet Lucian of Samosata (AD 120-180) has the god Cronos (Saturn) say in his poem, Saturnalia:
‘During my week the serious is barred: no business allowed. Drinking and being drunk, noise and games of dice, appointing of kings and feasting of slaves, singing naked, clapping … an occasional ducking of corked faces in icy water – such are the functions over which I preside.’
Saturnalia originated as a farmer’s festival to mark the end of the autumn planting season in honour of Saturn (satus means sowing). Numerous archaeological sites from the Roman coastal province of Constantine, now in Algeria, demonstrate that the cult of Saturn survived there until the early third century AD.
Saturnalia grew in duration and moved to progressively later dates under the Roman period. During the reign of the Emperor Augustus (63 BC-AD 14), it was a two-day affair starting on December 17th. By the time Lucian described the festivities, it was a seven-day event. Changes to the Roman calendar moved the climax of Saturnalia to December 25th, around the time of the date of the winter solstice.
From as early as 217 BC there were public Saturnalia banquets. The Roman state cancelled executions and refrained from declaring war during the festival. Pagan Roman authorities tried to curtail Saturnalia; Emperor Caligula (AD 12-41) sought to restrict it to five days, with little success.
Emperor Domitian (AD 51-96) may have changed Saturnalia’s date to December 25th in an attempt to assert his authority. He curbed Saturnalia’s subversive tendencies by marking it with public events under his control. The poet Statius (AD 45- 95), in his poem Silvae, describes the lavish banquet and entertainments Domitian presided over, including games which opened with sweets, fruit and nuts showered on the crowd and featuring flights of flamingos released over Rome. Shows with fighting dwarves and female gladiators were illuminated, for the first time, into the night.
The conversion of Emperor Constantine to Christianity in AD 312 ended Roman persecution of Christians and began imperial patronage of the Christian churches. But Christianity did not become the Roman Empire’s official religion overnight. Dr David Gwynn, lecturer in ancient and late antique history at Royal Holloway, University of London, says that, alongside Christian and other pagan festivals, ‘the Saturnalia continued to be celebrated in the century afterward’.
The poet Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius wrote another Saturnalia, describing a banquet of pagan literary celebrities in Rome during the festival. Classicists date the work to between AD 383 and 430, so it describes a Saturnalia alive and well under Christian emperors. The Christian calendar of Polemius Silvus, written around AD 449, mentions Saturnalia, recording that ‘it used to honour the god Saturn’. This suggests it had by then become just another popular carnival.
Christmas apparently started – like Saturnalia – in Rome, and spread to the eastern Mediterranean. The earliest known reference to it commemorating the birth of Christ on December 25th is in the Roman Philocalian calendar of AD 354. Provincial schisms soon resulted in different Christian calendars. The Orthodox Church in the Eastern (Byzantine) half of the Roman Empire fixed the date of Christmas at January 6th, commemorating simultaneously Christ’s birth, baptism and first miracle.
Saturnalia has a rival contender as the forerunner of Christmas: the festival of dies natalis solis invicti, ‘birthday of the unconquered sun’. The Philocalian calendar also states that December 25th was a Roman civil holiday honouring the cult of sol invicta. With its origins in Syria and the monotheistic cult of Mithras, sol invicta certainly has similarities to the worship of Jesus. The cult was introduced into the empire in AD 274 by Emperor Aurelian (214-275), who effectively made it a state religion, putting its emblem on Roman coins.
Sol invicta succeeded because of its ability to assimilate aspects of Jupiter and other deities into its figure of the Sun King, reflecting the absolute power of ‘divine’emperors. But despite efforts by later pagan emperors to control Saturnalia and absorb the festival into the official cult, the sol invicta ended up looking very much like the old Saturnalia. Constantine, the first Christian emperor, was brought up in the sol invicta cult, in what was by then already a predominantly monotheist empire: ‘It is therefore possible,’ says Dr Gwynn, ‘that Christmas was intended to replace this festival rather than Saturnalia.’
Gwynn concludes: ‘The majority of modern scholars would be reluctant to accept any close connection between the Saturnalia and the emergence of the Christian Christmas.’
Devout Christians will be reassured to learn that the date of Christmas may derive from concepts in Judaism that link the time of the deaths of prophets being linked to their conception or birth. From this, early ecclesiastical number-crunchers extrapolated that the nine months of Mary’s pregnancy following the Annunciation on March 25th would produce a December 25th date for the birth of Christ.
Saturnalia grew in duration and moved to progressively later dates under the Roman period. During the reign of the Emperor Augustus (63 BC-AD 14), it was a two-day affair starting on December 17th. By the time Lucian described the festivities, it was a seven-day event. Changes to the Roman calendar moved the climax of Saturnalia to December 25th, around the time of the date of the winter solstice.
Saturnalia was characterized by feasting, gift-giving, and general merriment. People would exchange small tokens of appreciation, such as candles, figurines, or pastries. It was also customary to decorate homes with greenery, such as holly and laurel, as a symbol of fertility and rebirth. The festival was marked by banquets and excessive eating and drinking. Gluttony was encouraged, and people would indulge in all kinds of food and drink, regardless of social status. It was also a time for gambling, singing, and dancing. Many forms of entertainment were organized, including plays and elaborate processions through the streets. Temples and public buildings were closed, and businesses ceased their normal operations to allow everyone to participate in the revelry. Work and any kind of serious matters were put on hold, and people were encouraged to relax, unwind, and let loose. Saturnalia was not only a celebration of Saturn but also served as a way to commemorate the winter solstice and the beginning of longer days. It was believed that Saturn ruled during the Golden Age, a time of abundance and prosperity. By honoring Saturn and indulging in joyous festivities, people hoped to invoke his blessings for the coming year. Over time, Saturnalia merged with other Roman festivals and traditions, eventually evolving into the modern Christmas celebrations. Many of the customs and rituals associated with Saturnalia, such as gift-giving and decorating with greenery, have been passed down through generations and are still observed today. In conclusion, Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival dedicated to the god Saturn. It was a time of revelry, feasting, and indulgence, during which social norms were temporarily suspended. The festival brought people together, fostered unity, and celebrated the hope for abundance and prosperity in the coming year. Today, its influence can still be seen in our modern Christmas traditions..
Reviews for "The Influence of Saturnalia on Modern Holiday Celebrations"
1. John - 1 star
I attended the Pagan Saturnalia Festival last weekend and I have to say, it was a complete disappointment. The organization and planning of the event were severely lacking. There were long lines for everything, from the entrance to the food stalls and even the restrooms. The lack of crowd control made it difficult to navigate through the festival grounds. Additionally, the performances and entertainment were subpar. The bands were mediocre at best, and the stage setup was poorly designed. Overall, I would not recommend attending this festival if you're looking for a fun and well-organized experience.
2. Sarah - 2 stars
While I appreciate the concept of celebrating ancient traditions and customs, the Pagan Saturnalia Festival failed to deliver an enjoyable experience. Firstly, the ticket prices were exorbitant, considering the lackluster lineup and minimal attractions. The food options were limited and overpriced, leaving festival-goers unsatisfied. Moreover, the festival layout was confusing and poorly marked, making it difficult to find the different areas and activities. The lack of shade and seating areas also made it uncomfortable to spend an extended amount of time at the festival. Overall, I was left unimpressed and felt that the festival did not live up to its hype.
3. Emily - 1 star
I attended the Pagan Saturnalia Festival with high hopes, only to be met with disappointment at every turn. The festival grounds were poorly maintained, with trash overflowing from bins and trash scattered throughout the area. The lack of cleanliness was off-putting and contributed to an unpleasant experience. Additionally, the festival staff seemed disorganized and unhelpful. I encountered numerous issues, from lost items to misplaced tickets, and the staff was extremely unresponsive and unwilling to offer any assistance. Overall, the Pagan Saturnalia Festival fell short in numerous areas and did not meet my expectations.