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INTRODUCTION "They are religious to excess, far beyond any other race of men . " wrote Herodotus in his History (Book 2). The Greek historian had observed Egyptian religious rites; he had studied the elaborate hymns to their great sun god, Amen-Ra and, a practice he especially abhorred, their worship of animal gods. However, he underestimated the scope of Egyptian religious beliefs.

The problem survives to this day; what has often come down to us, since the oral tradition has been lost, are often only fragments of myths rather than detailed narratives. Each tribe had its own protective deities, who were incarnated as animals, birds, reptiles, or simple fetishes, such as rams, bulls, hippopotamuses, cats, baboons, hawks, crocodiles, and snakes.

Topics range from artificial intelligence and virtual reality to blockchain and cybersecurity. Speakers from renowned companies and organizations share their insights and experiences, offering valuable knowledge and inspiration to the audience. In addition to the educational aspect, Magic Fountain Summit MB also provides a platform for networking and collaboration.

Whos Who in Egyptian Mythology

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the publisher. All rights reserved.

Inquiries should be addressed to Clarkson N. Potter, Inc.,

One Park Avenue, New

Published simultaneously in Canada by General Publishing First edition

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mercatante, Anthony S.

Who's who in Egyptian ms^thology. Bibliography:

Mythology, Egyptian BL2428.M47 1978 ISBN 0-517-53445-2 ISBN 0-517-53446-0 pbk. 1.

For Jack Haber ''in

deep and abiding friendship'

Foreword by Dr. Robert

A Chronology of Ancient Egjrptian Dynasties

A Note on the SpeUings Used Introduction

WHO'S WHO IN EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY Annotated Bibliography

Digitized by the Internet Arciiive in

FOREWORD Who in Egyptian Mythology Anthony S. Mercatante has given us a concise, easy-to-use dictionary of ancient Egyptian deities. There has been no comparable work in English for the general reader since the volumes published in the early part of this century, which are often outdated and misinformed. Because, as in any subject of such complexity, there are a variety of opinions on each aspect of Egyptian mythology, as well as different versions of each myth, the present book contains an annotated bibliography as a guide to further investigations. At a very early time in their history the ancient Egyptians began to create myths as a means of explaining natural phenomena. Because the forces of nature seemed immutable and eternal, they chose familiar and In Who's

fixed images to represent them in their stories. The images that were most easily adapted came from the animal kingdom. The Egyptians observed that animal behavior was predictable in the wild, and that, moreover, one falcon looked like any other falcon, as one generation of lions seemed very nearly like the next. The immutabilility of the animals' character and form and their association with certain natural forces provided the symbols for the unique mythology of ancient Egypt. All animals of a species were living reminders of the gods, but the Egyptians confined their reverence to specific animals, who were chosen by the priests of their temple. They did not regard every ibis, falcon, or cat as a god, although they might have worshipped particular animals of these kinds. At the same time, the Egyptians could live quite comfortably with animals from one species representing a number of distinct deities. For instance, we know that in Memphis a bull was worshipped as Apis, while in Armant another bull was celebrated as Buchis, and still another as Mnevis in Heliopolis; each was thought to represent a different nuance

In this way, too, the Egyptians were able to accept cosmologies that for us might seem contradictory; these often existed simultaneously throughout the cities of ancient Egypt. The interpretations reflected varying attitudes toward the divine; in each instance, the features and hierarchy of the gods that the adherents felt were important were emphasized. The residents of Memphis thus adopted Ptah, with all his attributes, as their supreme deity who came into being out of himself,

untroubled that this role and history were given to Amen, with all his attributes, in other cities. As time passed, some of these distinctions became less apparent, for an important development in Eg5T)tian religion was its growing tendency toward sjmcretism. Amen-Ra, the prominent divinity of the religion of the Eighteenth D5niasty, is the most frequently cited example of this merging of characteristics. In the cult of Isis we find still another model of one deity's absorption of the attributes of others. By the time of the Romans, Isis could be invoked by using the names and titles of almost all the Eg5T)tian goddesses. She had become the only goddess of any consequence and was later to be readily adopted as the Mother of God by the early Christians.

The Egyptians were fun-loving people they liked to drink, to hunt, and to attend banquets where entertainment was provided by dancing girls. Their tomb decorations celebrate the pleasures of life. Although there are the usual scenes of funerals and mourning, most of the narrative art depicts the inhabitant in life: surveying his estates, hunting in the deserts or marshes, fishing, or seated before an offering table receiving a wealth of gifts from an endless procession of family and servants and friends. At the same time, the Egyptians were a moral, ethical people who, living in a society of priests, were constantly aware of the obligations of mankind. Among the autobiographical inscriptions on the tombs are such phrases as: "I gave bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty, clothing to the naked"; "I oppressed not the orphan"; and "I took no

advantage of the widow." Religion played an essential part in the existence of this civilization. Almost every name known to us from inscriptions that have survived belonged to a priest of one of the religious cults. In a culture that was viewed as unique by its people, where life was seen as distinct from the life of any neighboring civilization, to be a priest was to be associated with what was specifically Eg5^tian. Priests were the link between the immutable and the eternal forces of nature and an earthly society and heritage that was thousands of years old. In their immutability and permanence the gods were a symbol of the Egyptian state. In Who's Who in Egyptian Mythology the reader encounters the values of an ancient civilization and learns how a society thousands of years old approached the divine in an attempt to explain the forces of the physical world. Dr. Robert S. Bianchi, Associate Curator

and Classical Art The Brookljni Museum

AUTHOR'S PREFACE Every year hundreds of thousands of people

visit the Egj^tian collecand, in increasing numbers of late, tourists of all nationalities have been exploring the country and monuments of Egypt. They are confronted by a profusion of symbols and

tions of the world's great

representations of deities, of myths and ancient religious practices of such varied richness that many of these visitors are undoubtedly overwhelmed by the complexity of Egyptian beliefs. Who are these mysterious deities, some of them half-human and half-animal, who were worshipped for thousands of years? Who is Osiris? Who is the jackal-headed god who watched over the dead? In Who's Who in Egyptian Mythology I have tried to furnish informative answers to these questions and many others, and to provide an entertaining and comprehensive selection of historic facts and myths and stories. There are entries on all the major deities of ancient Egypt. Along with Osiris, the mummy god, and Anubis, the jackal-headed god who watched over the embalming of the dead, the reader will be introduced to a host of lesser divinities, such as Bes, the dwarf god, who was invoked by common people for good luck, and Taurt, the hippopotamus goddess, who was a patron deity of childbirth. You will be introduced to the fascinating and little-known myths associated with each deity as well as to the symbols by which each was represented. There are entries not only on gods and goddesses but also on such topics as mummies, the Pyramids, and various other aspects of Egjrptian civilization that help shed light on their beliefs. A special feature of the dictionary is the inclusion of complete translations of major Egyptian tales. The Shipwrecked Sailor, The Doomed Prince, The Taking ofJoppa, The Tale of Two Brothers, The Tale ofSinuhe, The Peasant and the Workman, The Treasure ofRhampsinitus, Setna and the Magic Book and Tales of the Magicians. As a further aid to the reader there is A Chronology of Ancient Egyptian Dynasties; an Introduction that examines the basic framework of Egyptian m5rthology and religion; and an Annotated Bibliography that lists sources used in writing the book, as well as books for further reading. A dictionary of mjrthology does not spring full-grown from the head of its author, as Athene did from the head of Zeus. Instead, it depends on the

I wish first to thank Dr. Robert Steven Bianchi, Associate Curator of the Department of Egyptian and Classical Art at The Brookljm Museum, for his time, intelligence, and patience. His knowledge has been invaluable. Also to be thanked are Juan Montoya, John Spina, Robert Hawthorne Smyth, Richard Stack, Richard Johnson, Allan Knee, Bruce Singer, Susan Ann Protter, Professor Ronald Suter of Fairleigh Dickinson University, and my editor, Nancy Novogrod, Anthony S. Mercatante

aid of scholars.

A CHRONOLOGY OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN DYNASTIES Egj^tian history

divided into Dynasties, which

members of one royal family. This system was devised by the Egyptian priest Manetho in the third century B.C., and has been used consist of the

by Egyptologists ever Egypt have come down

Only fragments of Manetho's History of through the writings of others.

The dates ascribed to Dynasties often vary among scholars. Please note that in this list some Dynasties overlap, while in others no dates have been assigned. D5Tiasty

B.C.2635--2570 B.C.2570--2450 B.C.2450--2290 B.C.2290--2155

First Intermediate Period

Dynasty VII Dynasty VIII D5niasty IX D3nnasty

B.C.2155--2135 B.C.2134-2040 B.C. B.C.2134--1991

Middle Kingdom Dynasty XII

Old Kingdom Dynasty III Dynasty IV Dynasty V Djniasty VI

Second Intermediate Period Dynasty XIII Dynasty XIV Dynasty XV

New Kingdom Dynasty XVHI Dynasty XIX Dynasty XX

Third Intermediate Dynasty XXI Dynasty XXII Dynasty XXIII Dynasty XXIV Late Period Dynasty XXV Dynasty XXVI

B.C.1554--1305 B.C.1305--1196 B.C.1196--1080

B.C.946 -720 B.C.792 -720 B.C.740? -712 -

First Persian Period

Independent Dynasties B.C.404- 399 Dynasty XXVIII

Second Persian Period Dynasty

Ai J r^ X Alexander the GreatX Conquest .1.1-

Moslem Conquest AD. 641

A NOTE ON THE SPELLINGS USED

no standard way of transcribing ancient Egyptian names into Who in Egyptian Mythology I have therefore adopted the most frequently used English forms of Egyptian names, many from the Greek, as they appear in books and museum publications. For example, the god who personified the earth is variously listed as Geb, Keb, Qeb, and Seb. However, because Geb is the form most often encountered, the information for this entry appears under Geb. As an additional aid the

English. In Who's

variant spellings are also listed in alphabetical order the reader back to the main entry under Geb.

The book is arranged alphabetically, with compound names considered as one word for this purpose.

INTRODUCTION "They are religious to excess, far beyond any other race of men . " wrote Herodotus in his History (Book 2). The Greek historian had observed Egyptian religious rites; he had studied the elaborate hymns to their great sun god, Amen-Ra and, a practice he especially abhorred, their worship of animal gods. However, he underestimated the scope of Egyptian religious beliefs.

Animal worship was but one limited development, of relatively short duration, in the rich tradition of ancient Egyptian religion. For most of their history the people of ancient

Egypt revered only the sacred animal,

who was dedicated to the deity of their temple and believed to be that god incarnate, and considered him as a god. All other animals of the same species were honored but not worshipped. Zoolatry, or animal worship,

did not originate until the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (B.C. 664- 525) and was common in the Ptolemaic periods (from B.C. 332- 30 a number of Egyptian

kings were named Ptolemy), when the distinction between the elected one and his species was lost to the common people. Both Herodotus and the Latin satirist Juvenal studied late Egyptian religious practices at this time, and reached their conclusions about the ignorance of Egyptian beliefs and their barbaric animal worship, based on this one aspect of the entire range of their customs and ideas. In his fifteenth satire. On the Atrocities of Egypt, Juvenal lambastes the Egyptians for their zoolatry: Volusius,

who knows what monsters demented Egypt worships?

city adores the crocodile,

Another worships the

ibis that stuffs itself

In another part the cat

worshipped, In another a fish, still another honors the dog! No one worships Diana, but it is a sacrilege to crunch leeks and onions with the teeth! is

Just think, their gods grow in gardens.

Juvenal hated anything that was not Roman, and this prejudice, and Diana and Apollo, can in part be credited for his reactions against Egyptian practices. Then too the incoherencies and contradictions of Egyptian mythology and religion undoubtedly offended his sense of order. Juvenal did not find an Egyptian his Latin bias for humanlike gods such as

pantheon of twelve Olympian gods, familiar to him from Greek and Roman mjdihology but instead a series of local deities who were claimed as supreme creators, and many separate Egyptian deities, who shared joint identities as composite gods. To add to the confusion, most of the myths of Egypt were preserved orally. There was no Hesiod, Homer, Virgil, or Ovid to interpret Egyptian mythology. The best-known narration of an Egyptian myth, that of the deified man Osiris, was offered by Plutarch, a Greek writer. There are many references to myths in the Pyramid Texts (inscriptions written on the walls of pyramids) and in theBook of the Dead (a handbook for guiding the souls of the dead through the underworld), but the stories were simply alluded to, and the reader of both texts was expected to be familiar with them and to fill in the gaps in the accounts. The problem survives to this day; what has often come down to us, since the oral tradition has been lost, are often only fragments of myths rather than detailed narratives. The predynastic Egyptians (before B.C. 3400) believed that the sea, earth, air, and sky overflowed with spirits, some of whom were engaged in carrying on the works of nature, and others in helping or hindering man in the course of his existence on earth. All the events of nature were attributed to these spirits. It was thought that the continued friendship of the good spirits could be secured and the hostility of the evil spirits averted by gifts, or, more accurately, bribes. The earliest representations of these spirits, who had evolved into both good and demonic gods, appeared about the middle of the fourth millennium, before the introduction of hieroglyphs. Each tribe had its own protective deities, who were incarnated as animals, birds, reptiles, or simple fetishes, such as rams, bulls, hippopotamuses, cats, baboons, hawks, crocodiles, and snakes. The animal deities gradually gained ,

some of the animal's The animal then became sacred to the god.

characteristics, while usually retaining

features in their

The number of gods who existed during the long history of ancient Egypt is legion at one time there were more than a thousand a profusion developing as the early local cults, which were originally separate, were gradually absorbed into the growing unity of the state. While certain gods, such as Osiris, were worshipped all over Egypt, there was no one inclusive pantheon. Egypt was divided into nomes, or districts, each having its own chief god, temple, and college of priests. A mythology developed in one nome regardless of the beliefs of a neighboring nome, even though the same god, who was chief deity of one section, might hold a subordinate position in another. The Egyptian regarded his chief local god as all supreme.

The identities of deities were merged to create composite gods. There were, for instance, combinations of gods, such as Osiris-Ra and Amen-Ra, in whom two distinct natures and sets of attributes were joined. When a dynasty achieved preeminence, the cult of its chief god was spread throughout Egypt, and the local gods were in some way identified with it, or were thought of as manifestations or servants of the chief god. From the time of the Hyksos (B.C. 1650) there was a marked tendency to merge the natures and names of all the gods with the sun god Ra. However, the most famous of these composite gods, Amen-Ra (whom the Greeks identified with Zeus), never succeeded in dislodging Osiris from his exalted position. The cult of Osiris survived undiminished, notwithstanding the powerful influence that the priests of Ra and the worshippers of Amen and Aten exercised throughout Egypt. This longevity is no doubt due to the cult's promise of resurrection and immortality. The Eg5^tian interest in the afterlife was not morbid. Their early writings in tombs and monuments attest to the belief that life on earth was good and should be continued after death. Many of the scenes in the tombs depicted the happiness and joy of pure physical existence, and there was a spell for the dead specifically intended to guarantee that full sexual powers be carried into the next world. In contrast to most other mythologies, which, like the Greek, characterized the earth as feminine and the sky as masculine, Egyptian belief represented the earth by Greb, a masculine god, and the sky by a feminine deity. According to one of the Pyramid Texts, at the time of the creation of the world, "when men and gods did not yet exist, and there was as yet no death, masses of land and water formed from the original ocean." A number of mjHihs tell of the origin of the sun god, who was believed to die and be reborn each morning. The creation myths were interpreted by the priests at the centers of worship, such as Hermopolis, Heliopolis, Memphis, and Busiris, and the work of creation was attributed to the greatest local god, Thoth, Ra, Ptah, or Osiris was proclaimed to have created the world. At some places the god was said to have issued from the mouth of the primeval god or Demiurge and all other existence was thought to have been created from his voice; at other shrines, it was taught that men came from the tears or blood of the local god. The

enneads of nine gods and triads consisting of the a goddess, and their son. Because the gods were considered as mortal as man, the son was destined to take his father's place and was created as the exact physical counterpart of the older god. This gave rise to such epithets for the son as "self-begotten" and "the priests devised

husband of his mother." Although mortal in one sense, the gods were made eternal by the merging of their physical features and personalities across the generations. This may have been a symbolic expression of the idea of immortality. In other instances the family triad was supplanted by a combination of gods, such as the ennead of nine deities, a later attempt at systematic groupings. There were two enneads, "the great ennead" and "the lesser ennead." In both the chief god stood at the head of the other gods who formed his court and assisted him in governing the world. The chief god of the nome lived in the temple dedicated to him in his animal form or in the form of a symbol; the temple served as a place of worship and sacrifice. On the great festival days the god was borne in procession from the temple. The worshipper approached the enclosing wall of the sacred precincts along sacred ways guarded by rows of sphinxes. He passed through the gateway to enter the temple building. Two obelisks, a statue of the temple's founder, and tall masts decorated with brightly colored streamers stood before the doorway of the temple. The pylon, or doorway, a narrow entrance between two lofty towers, ushered the worshipper into a colonnaded court that was open to the sky and adorned with richly painted sacred pictures. Beyond was the dark sanctuary of the god, flanked by rooms where the vestments and sacramental ornaments were kept. The lay people hardly ever entered; only a few select celebrants were allowed. The priesthood of the temple was organized around various priestly tended the sacrifices, explained the oracles, studied the sacred texts, or served as teachers, often becoming officers of the state. The priesthoods were powerful and wealthy.

During the reign of Amenhotep IV (B.C. 1372- 1355), more commonly as Akhenaten or Ikhnaten, the name he chose for himself, the supremacy of the priesthood came under attack. Akhenaten sought to introduce the worship of a single god, Aten, symbolized by the sun disk, and opposed the priests of Amen by building a new capital at Akhet-Aten (the modern Tell el-Amarna), where his followers worshipped Aten. The priests were incensed by his neglect of politics and the fanaticism of his beliefs (he had all pictures of other gods removed from the temples and their names erased). After Akhenaten's death, the new king, Tutankhamen, reintroduced the worship of Amen at Thebes, and the Amama heresy, as it has come to be called, was wiped out. Akhenaten's name was then deleted from the list of kings. The religion of ancient Egypt remained diverse and at the same time conservative throughout her long history. In B.C. 30 Egypt became a Roman province, and a dramatic change in her faith soon followed. Egypt

evolved into the cradle of Christian monasticism, a new faith which at first existed side by side with the now dwindling old beliefs in Osiris, Isis, and Horus. When the cult of Osiris finally gave way to the new man-god, Jesus Christ, the Egyptians embracing Christianity found that the worship of Osiris and Jesus were compatible if not similar. Isis and her child Horus were identified with the Virgin Mary and the Christ child. In apocryphal literature of the first few centuries following the conversion of Egypt to Christianity, several legends of Isis were transferred to the Virgin Mary, as well as one of the goddess's epithets, Mut Netchet, which became Theotokos, or Mother of God, a very old and common title of Isis. It was not until the reign of Justinian (A.D. 525- 565) that the cult of Isis was abolished. In A.D. 641 when Byzantine control was destroyed by the Arab conquest of Egypt, Islam was brought to the land.

WHO'S WHO IN EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY

moon god who was with Thoth, the great

moon god. Aah was often portrayed as a young

man with the lock of youth. A

variant spelling of his

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