A magic square is a square grid of numbers where the sum of each row, column, and diagonal is the same. By rearranging the numbers in a square grid, one can create a magic square that exhibits a certain pattern or arrangement. The concept of magic squares can be traced back to ancient times, with evidence of their existence found in various cultures such as China, India, and Persia. These symmetric grids of numbers have intrigued mathematicians and philosophers for centuries due to their fascinating properties. Magic squares are often represented by numbers starting from 1 and filling up the grid sequentially. The order of a magic square refers to the number of rows or columns in the grid.

Brief history of the Salem witch trials

The order of a magic square refers to the number of rows or columns in the grid. For example, a 3x3 magic square has a total of 9 cells arranged in a 3x3 format. To create a magic square, certain rules must be followed.

How fear of the evil one turned into mass hysteria that claimed many innocent victims

"Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live," reads Exodus. And for more than four centuries, many obeyed this order, blindly believing in the existence of dark presences that acted on behalf of the devil and had, therefore, to be hunted down and killed. Thousands of women (as well as men and animals) were accused of serving the Evil One and immolated in the name of God, committing a senseless slaughter that lasted over four centuries and spanned the Old and New Continents. All that was needed to attract suspicion was to have a mole or a particular birthmark; to keep some milk or butter gone bad in the house; to be a beggar, an adulteress or simply to be unsociable. It soon became apparent that witchcraft had become the most practical expedient to eliminate outcasts and inconvenient women who, by transgressing the "natural" laws of marriage and their community, dared to question the socio-economic system.

Spells and curses were already forbidden in ancient Rome as well as in the medieval communes, but it was not until 1300, when the Church compared witchcraft to heresy, that the idea that those who practiced it were a threat to the world to be eradicated at all costs became widespread. Two important texts gave the final push: the letter Summis Desiderantes Affectibus of 1484, in which Pope Innocent VIII admitted the existence of witches, and the Malleus Maleficarum, a veritable manual on how to recognize, put on trial and put to death a witch, which was based on the belief that women were naturally inferior and naturally evil, and therefore much more susceptible to the temptations of the devil. The book written by the Dominican preachers Heinrich Institor Kramer and Jacob Sprenger, with its concentration of misogyny and homophobia, became the reference work used by Catholic and Protestant courts during witch hunts, even in the famous Salem witch trials.

A powder keg ready to explode

In 1692, more than two hundred people were accused of witchcraft in Salem. Quite an impressive number for a small New England village. But how did such mass hysteria come about? The causes are to be found in the socio-historical context. The rural community of Salem had arrived in New England for less than a century and was still considered by the natives as invaders, which generated constant clashes between the two factions. They were also dealing with the aftermath of a British war with France in the American colonies in 1689, a recent smallpox epidemic and a long-standing rivalry with the wealthier Salem Town community. Add widespread xenophobia and Puritanism's obsession with Satan's presence on earth and you have a powder keg ready to explode. The final spark was given in January 1692 by the bizarre behavior of Elizabeth Parris and Abigail Williams, respectively the daughter and granddaughter of Pastor Samuel Parris. The two girls, who were 9 and 11 years old, began to have seizures during which they would convulse, writhe, make strange noises and scream uncontrollably. The local doctor ruled that it was diabolic possession and the hunt for the culprit was on. Elizabeth and Abigail (along with other older members of the community) accused Tituba, a Caribbean slave owned by Parris himself; Sarah Osborne, an elderly and infirm woman; and Sarah Good, a homeless beggar woman who spoke to herself.

Witch hunt begins

Starting in March, the three women were brought before local magistrates and interrogated for several days. Despite pressure and torture, Osborne pleaded innocence, as did Good. But Tituba confessed. "The devil came to me and asked me to serve him". She said, giving extensive details of a "tall man with white hair and a dark coat" who wanted her to sign his book and ordered her to harm the girls or he would kill her. Hoping to be pardoned, the slave girl declared that Osborne and Good were her accomplices and that there were many other witches trying to destroy the Puritans. From that moment on it was chaos. The seed of paranoia spread throughout Massachusetts and in Salem, they continued to arrest alleged worshippers of the evil one. Not only marginalized people deemed "problematic", but also church and community members such as Martha Corey and Rebecca Nurse or Sarah Good's four-year-old daughter. On 27 May 1692, Governor William Phips ordered the establishment of a special Court of Oyer and Terminer for the counties of Suffolk, Essex and Middlesex. The first accused of witchcraft brought before the special court was Bridget Bishop, an elderly woman known to be a gossip and for her promiscuity. Despite swearing that she was "as innocent as an unborn child", she became the first person hanged on what was later called Gallows Hill. Five others were hanged in July; five in August; eight in September and others died in prison. Between early 1692 and mid-1693, the period of the Salem witch trials, more than 200 people were accused of practicing witchcraft and 20 were executed.

Conclusion and legacy

After the use of evidence based on dreams or visions lapsed, interest and support for witch hunts waned. Trials were discontinued and in May 1693 a pardon was issued for those still in prison. In January 1697, the Massachusetts General Court declared a day of fasting for the tragedy of the Salem witch trials, but the damage to the community was now irreversible. Beginning in 1700 and for the next ten years, family members of the persecuted petitioned the colonial government to have their good names restored, but it took more than 250 years for Massachusetts to formally apologize for the events of 1692 in 1957. The Salem Trials and the persecution of alleged witches have fascinated many artists over the years, such as Arthur Miller, who inspired the play The Crucible, and it has become ingrained in our imagination thanks to many books and films, from the TV series Salem to the Halloween cult hit Hocus Pocus to Sabrina Spellman's black cat. Even historians and scientists still wonder how a kind of mass psychosis could have been triggered. There are many theories. For some, the colonists were poisoned by the alkaloids synthesized by Claviceps purpurea that caused them to hallucinate; others claim it was an attempt to repress and control female sexuality; for others, it was the result of particular political, religious and social tensions.

The Salem Witch Hunt: A Brief History With Documents

Text appears clean, but may contain minor marks that we missed. May have bookstore stickers. Light Shelf Wear, Looks Very Nice. 202 pages. Multiple copies available this title. Quantity Available: 3. Shipped Weight: Under 1 kilo. Category: history; ISBN: 0312484550. ISBN/EAN: 9780312484552. Pictures of this item not already displayed here available upon request. Inventory No: 1561057118. Seller Inventory # 1561057118

Title: The Salem Witch Hunt: A Brief History With .

Publisher: Bedford

Publication Date: 2011

Binding: Softcover

Condition: Very Good

About this title

The Salem witch trials stand as one of the infamous moments in colonial American history. More than 150 people -- primarily women -- from 24 communities were charged with witchcraft; 19 were hanged and others died in prison. In his introduction to this compact yet comprehensive volume, Richard Godbeer explores the beliefs, fears, and historical context that fueled the witch panic of 1692. The documents in this collection illuminate how the Puritans' worldview led them to seek a supernatural explanation for the problems vexing their community. Presented as case studies, the carefully chosen records from several specific trials offer a clear picture of the gender norms and social tensions that underlie the witchcraft accusations. The final documents cover recantations of confessions, the aftermath of the witch hunt, and statements of regret. A chronology of the witchcraft crisis, questions for consideration, and a selected bibliography round out the book's pedagogical support.

RICHARD GODBEER (Ph.D., Brandeis University) is professor of history at the University of Miami. Godbeer's research and teaching interests center on colonial and revolutionary America, with an emphasis on religious culture, gender studies, and the history of sexuality. His first book, The Devil's Dominion: Magic and Religion in Early New England (1992) won the American Historical Association Pacific Coast Branch Award for the Best First Book. He is also the author of Sexual Revolution in Early America (2002), Escaping Salem: The Other Witch Hunt of 1692 (2004), and The Overflowing of Friendship: Love Between Men and the Creation of the American Republic (2009).

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III - LEGAL PROCEDURES USED DURING THE SALEM WITCH TRIALS AND A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE PUBLISHED VERSIONS OF THE RECORDS

The story of the 1692 Salem Village witchcraft outbreak is a fairly minor, though well-recorded, topic in world history. Its popular fascination continues to be out of proportion to its relative historical importance and remains the subject of innumerable scholarly as well as popular books and articles.

Unlike most of the previous witchcraft cases in old and New England, a significant number of the legal papers of the 1692/93 Massachusetts proceedings have survived. Today, preserved within judicial archives and various manuscript repositories, are around 950 of these legal and court papers representing more than 140 individually named witchcraft cases. Included among these documents are complaints, warrants and returns, mittimuses, depositions, preliminary examinations, indictments, summonses, recognizances, petitions, letters, and confessions. The Salem witchcraft cases have always afforded researchers a fairly extensive accumulation of primary source documents representing a diversity of people, yet combined into a body of knowledge that is manageable enough to be examined by authors and historians in microcosm. In popular culture the topic also possesses both the mysterious quality of the occult and a “Who dunnit?” mystique, factors that have combined to keep Salem witchcraft an active subject of popular history and university presses.

Many of these researchers into the Salem witchcraft events have, however, relied heavily upon printed transcripts of the original documents replicated in seventeenth-century writings of Cotton Mather, Robert Calef, and John Hale, as well as later transcriptions of the documents produced during the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries. Unfortunately such a reliance upon gathered transcripts, with their various inherent transcription weaknesses, including misread words, deletion of words and lines of text and other similar mistakes creeping into the transcripts, has resulted in minor and even major mistakes becoming accepted as part of the traditional body of facts. It was the realization of this imprecision of previous transcription projects and the complexity of creating a new, more accurate edition that led this new work's editorin-chief Bernard Rosenthal to ask others to join him as Associate Editors to create a new, more accurate and comprehensive edition. The project has required retranscribing all extant manuscripts.

The first number is usually placed in the middle row and leftmost column. Subsequent numbers are then placed diagonally upward and to the right, following a specific pattern. If a filled cell already exists in the desired position, the number is placed in the cell directly below. Magic squares can have different patterns depending on the desired outcome. Some common patterns include normal magic squares, pandiagonal magic squares, and most-perfect magic squares. Normal magic squares have the sum of each row, column, and diagonal equal to the magic constant, which is calculated by dividing the sum of the numbers from 1 to the order of the grid squared by the order of the grid. Pandiagonal magic squares, on the other hand, have the additional property of having the sum of each broken diagonal equal to the magic constant. Most-perfect magic squares have the properties of being normal, pandiagonal, and having the sum of each 2x2 subsquare equal to the magic constant. Magic square codomos are variations of magic squares with additional constraints or rules. These variations introduce new patterns and arrangements that make them distinct from traditional magic squares. These codomos often have specific restrictions on the arrangements of the numbers, creating unique and interesting puzzles to solve. In conclusion, magic squares are intriguing patterns of numbers that have fascinated mathematicians and philosophers for centuries. They exhibit symmetric properties and have the sum of each row, column, and diagonal equal to the same value. Magic square codomos add additional constraints and rules, creating new and challenging puzzles to explore..

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The Symbolism and Spiritual Meaning of Magic Square Codmos